Photon counting techniques with silicon avalanche photodiodes

Abstract

The properties of avalanche photodiodes and associated electronics required for photon counting in the Geiger and the sub-Geiger modes are reviewed. When the Geiger mode is used, there are significant improvements reported in overall photon detection efficiencies (approaching 70% at 633 nm), and a timing jitter (under 200 ps) is achieved with passive quenching at high overvoltages (20-30 V). The results obtained by using an active-mode fast quench circuit capable of switching overvoltages as high as 15 V (giving photon detection efficiencies in the 50% range) with a dead time of less than 50 ns are reported. Larger diodes (up to 1 mm in diameter) that are usable in the Geiger mode and that have quantum efficiencies over 80% in the 500-800-nm range are also reported.

Single photon avalanche detectors: prospects of new quenching and gain mechanisms

“…The thick depletion layer mitigates the carrier diffusion issues found in bulk Si SPADS but with a photon timing resolution of 350 ps measured in a time-correlated single photon counting setup with an active quenching configuration [42]. The Slik TM device also shows high quantum efficiency, achieving above 50% between 540 and 850 nm wavelength [41] and single photon detection efficiency greater than 50% between 600 and 800 nm wavelength at room temperature in a passive quenching configuration at an overbias of 20 V [10]. Practical considerations limit the potential use of the Slik TM device in array format, such as the requirement of a suitable cooling system due to the high power dissipation associated with very high breakdown voltages.…”

“…A revised structure from the previous reach-through avalanche diode is the Slik TM device [41]. The thick depletion layer mitigates the carrier diffusion issues found in bulk Si SPADS but with a photon timing resolution of 350 ps measured in a time-correlated single photon counting setup with an active quenching configuration [42].…”

Photon-Timing Detector Module for Single-Molecule Spectroscopy With 60-ps Resolution

“…SLIK devices employed as SPAD in the SPCM-AQR by PKI are built in special ultra-pure high-resistivity silicon wafers with a dedicated and proprietary technological process [10]. The device structure with a thick depletion layer (about 30 m) provides very good QE (better than 50% from 540 to 850 nm wavelength) but requires very high operating voltage (typically 400 V), produces high power dissipation during the avalanche (about 8 W), and limits the photon-timing resolution as quoted in Section I.…”

“…The available single-photon detectors based on fast PMTs can attain better than 100-ps FWHM resolution, but they have inadequate QE because of the intrinsic limits of the photocathodes. The commercially available single-photon counting modules (SPCM-AQR) by PerkinElmer (PKI) based on the SLIK silicon avalanche diode detector [10] have very good QE and low noise, but they have inadequate time resolution. In fact, the typical FWHM value of the SPCM-AQR is 350 ps and the intrinsic limit of SLIK devices, which can be attained operating the detector with different circuits, lies between 220 and 150 ps [11], [12].…”

Research and development of laser diode based instruments for applications in space

“…A lidar system based on small and highly efficient semiconductor lasers is now feasible due to recent developments in the laser and detector technologies. The recent development of high detection eflicie_v (50%), silicon-based photon-counting detectors (Dautet, 1993), when combined with high laser pulse repetition rates and long receiver integration times make miniature lidar systems feasible.…”