Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) of the Maghreb region: A systematic review of distribution, morphology, and role in the transmission of the pathogens

Abstract

Background Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) are important vectors of various human and animal pathogens such as Bartonella bacilliformis, Phlebovirus, and parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania, causative agent of leishmaniases that account among most significant vector-borne diseases. The Maghreb countries Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya occupy a vast area of North Africa and belong to most affected regions by these diseases. Locally varying climatic and ecological conditions support diverse sand fly fauna that includes many proven or suspected vectors. The aim of this review is to summarize often fragmented information and to provide an updated list of sand fly species of the Maghreb region with illustration of species-specific morphological features and maps of their reported distribution. Materials and methods The literature search focused on scholar databases to review information on the sand fly species distribution and their role in the disease transmissions in Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, surveying sources from the period between 1900 and 2020. Reported distribution of each species was collated using Google Earth, and distribution maps were drawn using ArcGIS software. Morphological illustrations were compiled from various published sources. Results and conclusions In total, 32 species of the genera Phlebotomus (Ph.) and Sergentomyia (Se.) were reported in the Maghreb region (15 from Libya, 18 from Tunisia, 23 from Morocco, 24 from Algeria, and 9 from Mauritania). Phlebotomus mariae and Se. africana subsp. asiatica were recorded only in Morocco, Ph. mascitti, Se. hirtus, and Se. tiberiadis only in Algeria, whereas Ph. duboscqi, Se. dubia, Se. africana africana, Se. lesleyae, Se. magna, and Se. freetownensis were reported only from Mauritania. Our review has updated and summarized the geographic distribution of 26 species reported so far in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, excluding Mauritania from a detailed analysis due to the unavailability of accurate distribution data. In addition, morphological differences important for species identification are summarized with particular attention to closely related species such as Ph. papatasi and Ph. bergeroti, Ph. chabaudi, and Ph. riouxi, and Se. christophersi and Se. clydei.

Epidemiology, Isolation, and Genetic Characterization of Toscana Virus in Algerian Patients Displaying Neurological Infection, 2016–2018

“…As in other studies conducted in the Maghreb, most patients were living in coastal provinces [13 , 10] . Interestingly, TOSV cases were also identified in inland Wilayas known for the high activity of sand flies and where TOSV-specific antibodies were detected in dogs [27 , 12] . Among these Wilayas, two are bordering Tunisia and Morocco, where TOSV circulation was described [15 , 10] .…”

Evaluation of the accuracy of the information on websites about visceral leishmaniasis: a strategy for countering information disorder

“…The list of indicators could be even greater if a topic on breeding sites for the transmitting insect had been included. According to Benallal et al 16 , mosquito vectors reproduce in an environment with decomposing organic matter or in animal breeding grounds. The 'Visceral Leishmaniasis Surveillance and Control Manual' from the Brazilian Ministry of Health 17 considers this information crucial for prevention and control in endemic areas and guidance in environmental management.…”

Immune Responses in Leishmaniasis: An Overview

“…Leishmaniasis is a neglected endemic tropical disease distributed in more than 90 countries throughout the New World (Latin America) and Old World (Africa, Asia, and Southern Europe), primarily found in Southeast Asia, East Africa, and Brazil. It has an estimated prevalence of 12 million cases worldwide, which is continuously growing, with 1.5-2 million new cases each year [1,2]. Leishmaniasis is an infectious disease caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania, of the Trypanosomatidae family.…”