Phenomena at the interface between positive active material and lead—calcium—tin grids

The Role of Electrolyte Hydrodynamic Properties on the Performance of Lead-Based Anodes in Electrometallurgical Processes

“…21,35 Furthermore, the presence of tin is shown to modify the PbO 2 layer formed on the surface of the lead anodes. 36,37 Tin increases the ratio of α-PbO 2 / β-PbO 2 in the corroded surface layer. These two modifications of PbO 2 have different electrochemical behaviors regarding OER.…”

“…This is in agreement with previous observations that the presence of tin results in more formation of α-PbO 2 . 21,23,37 Formation of higher amounts of PbSO 4 and PbO 2 as a result of oxidation shows faster electrochemical reactions on the surface of Pb-Sn-Ca alloy at initial stages of anodic polarization compared to Pb-Ca alloy. Effect of solution hydrodynamics.-Figure 3 shows potential variation of Pb-Sn-Ca and Pb-Ca alloys during anodic polarization in stagnant and stirred solutions (600 and 1000 rpm) under constant current density of 50 mA/cm 2 .…”

“…This plateau was longer in Pb-Sn-Ca alloys, which verified that tin enhances the formation of α-PbO 2 compared to β-PbO 2 . [35][36][37] The symbols that were used in the calculation of the amount of detached lead dioxide are defined here: W 1 : initial mass of the sample. W d : mass of the sample after anodic polarization for 24 hours and after the discharge process.…”

Effect of Sn and Ca doping on the corrosion of Pb anodes in lead acid batteries

“…Similar conclusions were derived by Pavlov et al [9] who suggested that Sn is incorporated into the PbO/PbO x crystal lattice. According to Takahashi et al [10] tin accelerates the growth of a-PbO 2 which prevents the formation of a PbSO 4 layer on the surface of the grid. However, Carter et al [11] found that leadcalcium-tin anodes lost 20% of their initial capacity after 50 cycles of deep discharge.…”

“…They also found that PbSn alloys exhibited increased corrosive attack along the grain boundaries at grid-electrolyte interface. As seen from the review of the literature [8][9][10][11][12] addition of Sn leads to increased reversibility and superior charge acceptance. However, it also leads to increased loss of active material due to dissolution of the passive film [11].…”