Pharmacological Efficacy of Probiotics in Respiratory Viral Infections: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Mortality and morbidity from influenza and other respiratory viruses are significant causes of concern worldwide. Infections in the respiratory tract are often underappreciated because they tend to be mild and incapacitated. On the other hand, these infections are regarded as a common concern in clinical practice. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections, albeit this is becoming more challenging since many of the more prevalent infection causes have acquired a wide range of antimicrobial resistance. Resistance to frontline treatment medications is constantly rising, necessitating the development of new antiviral agents. Probiotics are one of several medications explored to treat respiratory viral infection (RVI). As a result, certain probiotics effectively prevent gastrointestinal dysbiosis and decrease the likelihood of secondary infections. Various probiotic bacterias and their metabolites have shown immunomodulating and antiviral properties. Unfortunately, the mechanisms by which probiotics are effective in the fight against viral infections are sometimes unclear. This comprehensive review has addressed probiotic strains, dosage regimens, production procedures, delivery systems, and pre-clinical and clinical research. In particular, novel probiotics’ fight against RVIs is the impetus for this study. Finally, this review may explore the potential of probiotic bacterias and their metabolites to treat RVIs. It is expected that probiotic-based antiviral research would be benefitted from this review’s findings.

Ganoderma lucidum: Insight into antimicrobial and antioxidant properties with development of secondary metabolites

“…Lower respiratory tract infections again remain the fourth leading cause of death. In elderly people, especially in the lower respiratory tract, infections, whether viral or bacterial, remain one of the toughest clinical conditions to treat [ 61 ]. There are multiple antibiotics available to treat these infections.…”

The Efficacy of Probiotics as Antiviral Agents for the Treatment of Rotavirus Gastrointestinal Infections in Children: An Updated Overview of Literature

“…Additionally, the effects of probiotic modulation on the immune cells can be observed in lymphocytes, hematopoietic stem cells, T cells, macrophages, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells. Additionally, molecules usually associated with pathogens, such as lipopolysaccharide of gram-negative bacteria or lipoteichoic acids of gram-positive bacteria, can be produced by probiotics and interact with different toll-like receptors, and incite NF-κB-mediated antiviral gene expression [19,34,35,47,48].…”

“…It is also known that respiratory viruses can cause changes in the gut microbiome, therefore probiotics are a possible medication to treat respiratory viral infections via gutmicrobiota modulation and production of immunomodulatory agents. Interactions between probiotics, macrophages, and dendritic cells are seen in the lamina propria, resulting in natural killer (NK) cell activation, which triggers interferon gamma (IFN-γ) production to defend against viruses, and efficient immune cells go to infection sites via circulatory and lymphatic systems to protect against respiratory viruses [35,47,48].…”

“…Probiotics are, by definition, "live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health effect on the host" [31]. Scientific evidence shows enough evidence to justify the use of probiotics for the treatment of several disorders, including gastrointestinal dysbiosis, antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, irritable bowel syndrome, and inflammatory bowel disease, as well as anxiety, depression, and wound healing [19,20,[32][33][34][35]. In a review on the management of acute gastroenteritis in Jordanian children [36], it was emphasised that prevention of diarrhoea diseases should focus on the improvement of nutrition, hygiene, and sanitation.…”

Impacts of gut microbiota on human health and diseases

“…The adaptive immune response depends on B and T lymphocytes, which bind to specific antigens. In contrast, the innate system responds to common structures, called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), shared by a majority of pathogens [20].…”