Pharmacokinetics of Azithromycin in the Blue and Gold Macaw (Ara Ararauna) After Intravenous and Oral Administration

Abstract

Azithromycin is classified as an azalide, a subclass of macrolide antimicrobials with a broad spectrum of activity in vitro against many potential bacterial pathogens including spirochetes, anaerobes, and Chlamydia trachomatis. Because of limited data on the use of azithromycin in avian medicine, this study was designed to determine the pharmacokinetics of azithromycin in blue and gold macaws (Ara ararauna), a species commonly seen in clinical practice. Azithromycin (10 mg/kg) was administered via crop lavage to five birds and intravenously to five birds, and blood samples were obtained at 0, 0.5, 1, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hr post-azithromycin administration. Following a 4-wk washout period, the study was repeated with a complete crossover study performed. Concentration of azithromycin in plasma samples was quantified using a validated liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry assay. Pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using noncompartmental analysis. Based on the pharmacokinetic data generated from this study, a starting dose of azithromycin at 10 mg/kg p.o. every 48 hr for susceptible bacterial infections in blue and gold macaws is recommended.

Evaluation of Multidrug Therapy With Azithromycin, Rifampin, and Ethambutol for the Treatment ofMycobacterium aviumsubspaviumin Ring-neck Doves (Streptopelia risoria): An Uncontrolled Clinical Study

“…39 Also, a dose of 40 mg/kg given every 48 hours was found to maintain therapeutic blood concentrations in blue and gold macaws (Ara ararauna) and to be effective at eliminating Chlamydophila psittaci infections in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus). 40 Drug metabolism could vary among different avian species, and the lack of pharmacokinetic studies for these antimycobacterial drugs in doves precludes further conclusions about the ability of these drugs to reach therapeutic concentrations.…”

Pharmacokinetic characteristics of azithromycin in freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus siamensis) after intramuscular administration at three different dosages

“…in the freshwater crocodile, C. siamensis . A number of pharmacokinetic studies of AZM have been described in various animal species, including companion animals (Hunter et al, 1995; Shepard & Falkner, 1990), rodents (Escudero et al, 2006), ball python (Coke et al, 2003; Hunter et al, 2003), and macaws (Carpenter et al, 2006). The pharmacokinetic characteristics of some antimicrobial drugs such as enrofloxacin, tetracycline have been investigated in American alligators (Helmick et al, 2004; Rivera et al, 2012) while enrofloxacin has been investigated in estuarine crocodiles (Martelli et al, 2009).…”

“…It has either bactericidal or bacteriostatic action, depending on the plasma concentration (Islam et al, 2012). It has broad spectrum in vitro activity against bacterial pathogens of both Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus pneumoniae , Haemophilus influenzae , Moraxella catarrhalis , Neisseria gonorrhoeae , Chlamydia pneumoniae , Chlamydia trachomatis , Legionella pneumophila , Mycoplasma hominis , Mycoplasma pneumoniae , Bordetella pertussis , Peptostreptococcus spp., Prevotella bivia , and Ureaplasma urealyticum (Borkner et al, 2018; Carpenter et al, 2006; Hyde et al, 2001; Niki et al, 1994; O'Day et al, 1994; Plumb, 2011). Both of properties, the broad spectrum and pharmacokinetic characteristic of AZM, are useful for a variety of infections such as respiratory and reproductive infection in humans (Papich, 2011) and against intracellular bacteria, Rhodococcus equi , and Lowsenia intracellularis in foals in veterinary medicine (Davis et al, 2002) Siamese crocodiles ( Crocodylus siamensis ) are raised in captivity as a conservation measure for this endangered species but also for economic purposes because of their high‐value skin and meat.…”

Pharmacokinetics of a single intramuscular injection of ceftiofur crystalline-free acid in American black ducks (Anas rubripes)

“…To ensure that a sufficient number of blood samples were obtained at each time point for analysis and to minimize the total volume of blood obtained from each duck within a 7-day period after injection of CCFA, ducks were randomly allocated into 2 groups. Blood samples (0.9 to 1.3 mL) were collected into tubes containing lithium heparin from 4 male and 4 female ducks (weight range, 1.15 to 2.0 kg) at ≤ 2 weeks prior to dosing (0 hours) and 0.25, 0.5, 1,2,4,8,12,48,96,144,192, and 240 hours after administration of CCFA and from 3 male and 3 female ducks (weight range, 1.3 to 1.7 kg) at ≤ 2 weeks prior to dosing (0 hours) and 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 24, 72, 120, 168, and 216 hours after administration of CCFA. Blood samples were collected from a jugular or cutaneous ulnar vein.…”

“…Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of many antimicrobials, including fluoroquinolones, β-lactams, tetracyclines, and macrolides, have been determined for several species of birds. [2][3][4][5][6][7] Many antimicrobials have a short halflife, which necessitates frequent treatment and poten-Pharmacokinetics of a single intramuscular injection of ceftiofur crystalline-free acid in American black ducks (Anas rubripes)…”