Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment: A Review on Eco-Toxicology and the Remediation Potential of Algae

Abstract

The pollution of the aquatic environment has become a worldwide problem. The widespread use of pesticides, heavy metals and pharmaceuticals through anthropogenic activities has increased the emission of such contaminants into wastewater. Pharmaceuticals constitute a significant class of aquatic contaminants and can seriously threaten the health of non-target organisms. No strict legal regulations on the consumption and release of pharmaceuticals into water bodies have been implemented on a global scale. Different conventional wastewater treatments are not well-designed to remove emerging contaminants from wastewater with high efficiency. Therefore, particular attention has been paid to the phycoremediation technique, which seems to be a promising choice as a low-cost and environment-friendly wastewater treatment. This technique uses macro- or micro-algae for the removal or biotransformation of pollutants and is constantly being developed to cope with the issue of wastewater contamination. The aims of this review are: (i) to examine the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in water, and their toxicity on non-target organisms and to describe the inefficient conventional wastewater treatments; (ii) present cost-efficient algal-based techniques of contamination removal; (iii) to characterize types of algae cultivation systems; and (iv) to describe the challenges and advantages of phycoremediation.

Polystyrene nanoplastics alter the ecotoxicological effects of diclofenac on freshwater microalgae Scenedesmus obliquus

“…17 As a defence mechanism, microalgae can produce antioxidative enzymes like SOD and CAT to combat the damaging effects of excessive ROS caused by the contaminants. 12 Both the individual and combined effects of DCF and FNPs on SOD and CAT production followed a similar trend as noticed in oxidative stress. Similar to our study, a report on the growth inhibition of Parachlorella kessleri by DCF (0.1 and 0.5 mg L −1 ) stated that the cell damage due to the increased oxidative stress spontaneously produces enhanced SOD and CAT enzymes.…”

“…11 Among them, pharmaceuticals from diverse categories are used to treat and maintain the health of both humans and animals. 12 NPs are characterized by their small size, which results in a significantly larger specific surface area as compared to MPs. This unique feature allows NPs to adsorb and accumulate other contaminants, including pharmaceuticals, present in the aquatic environment.…”

Preliminary insights into the action of non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals in the colonization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa TGC04

“…Both the active form of a drug and its metabolites are largely discarded in water bodies. As a result, these compounds, entering the public wastewater or drinking water environments, can threaten or cause mutations in non-target organisms, characterizing an important class of aquatic pollutants (49).…”

Anthropization, Salinity and Oxidative Stress in Animals in the Coastal Zone

“…The rapid development of industries to meet the daily demands of a rising population has resulted in the production of more human-generated wastes which include CO 2 emissions, undigested pharmaceutical compounds [8], nanoparticles from wastewater treatment plants, return flow from irrigated fields [9], organic and inorganic biodegradable nutrients, heavy metal accumulation, human pathogens [10], etc. Anthropogenic inputs have led to a transformation in the dynamics of rivers, lakes, estuaries, coastal wetlands, etc., through the deposition of sediments, a change in the velocity of water flow [4], a rise in sea levels due to climatic changes, an increase in risks of flood, changes in tidal patterns [11,12], shifts in physicochemical parameters of the aquatic ecosystem (e.g., pH, turbidity, salinity, etc.)…”