Pharmaceutical Cognitive Enhancement in Greek University Students: Differences Between Users and Non-Users in Social Cognitive Variables, Burnout, and Engagement

Abstract

Although there are some studies about PCE prevalence, it is less clear how users and nonusers of PCE substances differ with respect to their positive and negative student experiences (e.g., academic burnout, engagement with studies) and in social cognitive variables that relate to decision-making and self-regulation of PCE use. The present study assessed whether students with different experiences of PCE substance use displayed differences in academic burnout, study engagement and social cognitive variables relevant to PCE use. Three hundred and forty seven University students (M age = 22.15, SD = 1.69; 54% females) completed a battery of anonymous questionnaires on academic burnout, engagement with studies, social cognitive variables relevant to PCE use, and self-reported use of PCE substances and nonprescribed nutritional supplements. Three user groups emerged, namely, non-users (51.9%, n = 180), single users of non-prescribed dietary supplements (25.4%, n = 88), and dual users of both non-prescribed dietary supplements and PCE (22.8%, n = 79). Multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant differences among the three user groups in intentions, attitudes, social norms, and anticipated regret towards PCE use. No significant differences were observed with respect to academic burnout and work engagement. The findings show that University students may engage in PCE use independently of their student experiences.Rather, a chemically-assisted performance enhancement mindset seems to differentiate users from non-users of PCE substances.

Nonmedical use of prescription drugs for cognitive enhancement as response to chronic stress especially when social support is lacking

“…This finding resembles several prior studies on different substances specific or unspecific to CE (Brown et al, ; Lazuras et al, ; Maier, Haug, & Schaub, ; Middendorff et al, ; Peck et al, ; Schröder et al, ; Wolff & Brand, ). However, some studies found no effects of different indicators for stress (Lazuras et al, ; Maier, Haug, & Schaub, ). The finding of this study could be understood from different theoretical perspectives (e.g., self‐medication hypothesis, stress coping, strain theory, and the job demands–resources theory).…”

“…We found that higher levels of stress are positively associated with the likelihood of self-reporting such use. This finding resembles several prior studies on different substances specific or unspecific to CE (Brown et al, 2014;Lazuras et al, 2017;Maier, Haug, & Schaub, 2015;Middendorff et al, 2012;Peck et al, 2018;Schröder et al, 2015;Wolff & Brand, 2013). However, some studies found no effects of different indicators for stress (Lazuras et al, 2017;Maier, Haug, & Schaub, 2015).…”

“…Such effects may especially occur when drugs are used in unsupervised settings. The use of drugs for CE is often seen as drug misuse (Lazuras, Ypsilanti, Lamprou, & Kontogiorgis, ) and as cheating (Dubljević, Sattler, & Racine, ) because it can distort competition and incentivize or pressure non‐users to start drug use. However, some scholars hope that such drugs can solve social problems such as poor education and social inequality (Bostrom & Sandberg, ).…”

“…Other studies also present reasons of CE-drug use descriptively (Mache, Eickenhorst, Vitzthum, Klapp, & Groneberg, 2012;Schröder et al, 2015) and list dealing with high demands, performance pressure, or stress as reasons. Several quantitative studies specifically investigating prescription drug use for CE found positive associations with different indicators of stress (e.g., burnout; Lazuras et al, 2017;Maier, Haug, & Schaub, 2015;Middendorff et al, 2012;Schröder et al, 2015;Wolff & Brand, 2013). However, some indicators (e.g., the quantitative extent of work demands) were not associated with CE-drug use (Lazuras et al, 2017;Maier, Haug, & Schaub, 2015).…”

“…Thereby, several theoretically overlapping approaches on the relation between substance use and stress include the self-medication hypothesis, stress coping, strain theory, and the job demands-resources theory (Khantzian, 1997;Müller & Schumann, 2011;Sattler & Wiegel, 2013;Wiegel, Sattler, Göritz, & Diewald, 2016;Wolff, Brand, Baumgarten, Lösel, & Ziegler, 2014) can help advance the understanding of why stress might be related to CE-drug use. These theories all assume that stress increases substance use, not only including alcohol and nicotine but also CE-drugs (Agnew, 2013;Barbieri & Connell, 2017;Ford & Schroeder, 2008;Lazuras et al, 2017;Maier, Haug, & Schaub, 2015;Müller & Schumann, 2011;Peck et al, 2018;Peirce, Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1996;Steptoe et al, 1996;Wiegel et al, 2016;Wolff & Brand, 2013;Wolff et al, 2014).…”