Pesticide Pollution: Detrimental Outcomes and Possible Mechanisms of Fish Exposure to Common Organophosphates and Triazines

Abstract

Pesticides are well known for their high levels of persistence and ubiquity in the environment, and because of their capacity to bioaccumulate and disrupt the food chain, they pose a risk to animals and humans. With a focus on organophosphate and triazine pesticides, the present review aims to describe the current state of knowledge regarding spatial distribution, bioaccumulation, and mode of action of frequently used pesticides. We discuss the processes by which pesticides and their active residues are accumulated and bioconcentrated in fish, as well as the toxic mechanisms involved, including biological redox activity, immunotoxicity, neuroendocrine disorders, and cytotoxicity, which is manifested in oxidative stress, lysosomal and mitochondrial damage, inflammation, and apoptosis/autophagy. We also explore potential research strategies to close the gaps in our understanding of the toxicity and environmental risk assessment of organophosphate and triazine pesticides.

Multiple Molecular and Biochemical Alterations in Zebrafish Exposed to Terbuthylazine and Malathion

“…Zebrafish were affected by both terbuthylazine and malathion, so that cytotoxicity evaluated by LDH leakage, DNA strand breaks, and cathepsin D were observed in the fish liver after exposure to all tested concentrations. Our findings are consistent with previous research that found organophosphate pesticides and atrazine, a triazine pesticide, to be moderate or even highly toxic to fish (Anderson et al 2021;Khatib et al 2022). When zebrafish were handled with the mixture of pesticides, LDH leakage was multiplied but, in contrast, DNA strand breaks were decreased, particularly in the TL+MH group.…”

“…Existing findings suggest that organophosphates and triazine pesticides, which are known to be endocrine disruptors, may influence the corticosteroid levels or thyroid equilibrium in fish (Khatib et al 2022). Our study showed no significant changes in either thyrotropin or cortisol in exposed zebrafish.…”

“…In aquatic animals, malondialdehyde and protein carbonyls, as the products of lipid and protein oxidative damage, have received the greatest attention while studying of toxic effects because of their wide exploration, simplicity of determination, and sensitivity (Lushchak 2011;Marsillach 2013;Khatib et al 2022). It is worth mentioning that TBARS levels in the liver, kidney, and gills of fish increased after short-and long-term exposure to numerous pesticides, including atrazine (30-90 µg L −1 ), chlorpyrifos (1.4 and 2.44 µg L −1 ), cypermethrin (0.5 or 1 µg L −1 ), glyphosate (15 µg L −1 and 500 µg L −1 ), and methyl parathion (0.009-0.09 ppm) (Blahová et al 2013;Abhijith et al 2016;Kaur et al 2017;Nunes et al 2018;Falfushynska et al 2022).…”

“…It is worth mentioning that TBARS levels in the liver, kidney, and gills of fish increased after short-and long-term exposure to numerous pesticides, including atrazine (30-90 µg L −1 ), chlorpyrifos (1.4 and 2.44 µg L −1 ), cypermethrin (0.5 or 1 µg L −1 ), glyphosate (15 µg L −1 and 500 µg L −1 ), and methyl parathion (0.009-0.09 ppm) (Blahová et al 2013;Abhijith et al 2016;Kaur et al 2017;Nunes et al 2018;Falfushynska et al 2022). While reactions to the effects of organophosphate pesticides have been fairly well studied, the effects of chloro-s-triazine have been almost completely overlooked (Khatib et al 2022). Only some examinations exist regarding the induction of lipid peroxidation in yellow-tailed tetra fish (Astyanax altiparanae) after atrazine exposure (Destro et al 2021).…”

“…The extensive use of these chemicals might lead to their appearance in different spots, including soil, surface waters, and ground waters, and it's no surprise that the amount of agricultural land at risk for pesticide pollution has been steadily rising (Taylor at al. 2002;Khatib et al 2022). Almost two-thirds of global agricultural land are now polluted with more than one pesticide, and a third of those areas is at high risk (Tang et al 2021).…”