Perspectives on observational learning in animals.

Abstract

Observational learning is presumed to have occurred when an organism copies an improbable action or action outcome that it has observed and the matching behavior cannot be explained by an alternative mechanism. Psychologists have been particularly interested in the form of observational learning known as imitation and in how to distinguish imitation from other processes. To successfully make this distinction, one must disentangle the degree to which behavioral similarity results from (a) predisposed behavior, (b) increased motivation resulting from the presence of another animal, (c) attention drawn to a place or object, (d) learning about the way the environment works, as distinguished from what we think of as (e) imitation (the copying of the demonstrated behavior). Several of the processes that may be involved in observational learning are reviewed, including social facilitation, stimulus enhancement, several kinds of emulation, and various forms of imitation.

Imitation of novel conspecific and human speech sounds in the killer whale (Orcinus orca)

“…Learning a previously unknown behaviour by observation from another individual [1] enables the 33 non-genetic transfer of information between individuals and constitutes a potential driver for the 34 diffusion and consolidation of group-specific behavioural phenotypes (i.e., traditions and cultures) 35 [2,3]. Imitation of novel sounds, also referred to as vocal production learning [4] and defined as the 36 ability to learn to produce a novel sound just from hearing it, is a core property of human speech 37 which, along with other cognitive skills, has fuelled the evolution of another adaptation uniquely 38 evolved in our species, human culture [5].…”

Wild vervet monkeys copy alternative methods for opening an artificial fruit

“…Such two-action studies have typically been dyadic, particularly in the early years of the 54 approach, with an isolated subject learning from a single trained conspecific (Zentall 2012). More …”

The Moderating Impact of Distal Regularities on the Effect of Stimulus Pairings

“…Observational learning refers to the capacity to learn how stimuli are related to one another by observing others when they are in contact with the environment. This type of learning allows organisms to change their existing (or acquire novel) behaviors without the need to ever directly encounter the aversive or appetitive consequences of their behavior for themselves (see Bandura, 1965;Zentall, 2012).…”