Persistent Pesticides in Human Breast Milk and Cryptorchidism

Abstract

IntroductionPrenatal exposure to some pesticides can adversely affect male reproductive health in animals. We investigated a possible human association between maternal exposure to 27 organochlorine compounds used as pesticides and cryptorchidism among male children.DesignWithin a prospective birth cohort, we performed a case–control study; 62 milk samples from mothers of cryptorchid boys and 68 from mothers of healthy boys were selected. Milk was collected as individual pools between 1 and 3 months postpartum and analyzed for 27 organochlorine pesticides.ResultsEight organochlorine pesticides were measurable in all samples (medians; nanograms per gram lipid) for cases/controls: 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethylene (p,p′-DDE): 97.3/83.8; β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH): 13.6/12.3; hexachlorobenzene (HCB): 10.6/8.8; α -endosulfan: 7.0/6.7; oxychlordane: 4.5/4.1; 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (p,p′-DDT): 4.6/4.0; dieldrin: 4.1/3.1; cis-heptachloroepoxide (cis-HE): 2.5/2.2. Five compounds [octachlorostyrene (OCS); pentachlorobenzene, 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (p,p′-DDD); o,p′-DDT; mirex] were measurable in most samples (detection rates 90.8–99.2%) but in lower concentrations. For methoxychlor, cis-chlordane, pentachloroanisole (PCA), γ -HCH, 1,1-dichloro-2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2,2(4-chlorophenyl)ethane, trans-chlordane, α -HCH, and o,p′-DDE, both concentrations and detection rates were low (26.5–71.5%). Heptachlor, HCH (δ, ɛ ), aldrin, β-endosulfan and trans-heptachloroepoxide were detected at negligible concentrations and low detection rates and were not analyzed further. Seventeen of 21 organochlorine pesticides [p,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, o,p′-DDT, HCH (α , β, γ ), HCB, PCA, α -endosulfan, cis-HE, chlordane (cis-, trans-) oxychlordane, methoxychlor, OCS, and dieldrin] were measured in higher median concentrations in case milk than in control milk. Apart from trans-chlordane (p = 0.012), there were no significant differences between cryptorchid and healthy boys for individual chemicals. However, combined statistical analysis of the eight most abundant persistent pesticides showed that pesticide levels in breast milk were significantly higher in boys with cryptorchidism (p = 0.032).ConclusionThe association between congenital cryptorchidism and some persistent pesticides in breast milk as a proxy for maternal exposure suggests that testicular descent in the fetus may be adversely affected.

Widely Used Pesticides with Previously Unknown Endocrine Activity Revealed as in Vitro Antiandrogens

“…Banned persistent organochlorines [p,p´-DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2-[o-chlorophenyl]-2,2-[pchlorophenyl]ethane), p,p´-DDE (p,p´-1,1-bis-(4-chlorophenyl)-2,2-dichloroethene), β-hexachloro cyclo hexane, hexachloro benzene, α-endosulfan, cis-heptachloro epoxide, oxychlordane, dieldrin] were detected in all samples of breast milk in a case-control study of mothers in Denmark and Finland. Also, levels were significantly higher in samples from mothers of sons with cryptorchidism than in samples from matched controls (1997Damgaard et al 2006). Female Danish greenhouse workers exposed to current-use pesticides were more likely to give birth to a son with cryptorchidism than were a random sample of mothers from the Copenhagen area (6.2% and 1.9%).…”

Currently used pesticides, hexachlorobenzene and hexachlorocyclohexanes in the air and seawater of the German Bight (North Sea)

“…The term 'currently used pesticide' used here means pesticides which are not subject to worldwide restrictions. These CUPs attract our interest because of their continued high production volume and occurrence in aquatic biota, [10][11][12] osprey eggs, [13] human breast milk [14] and Arctic media (e.g. air, water and ice).…”

Effects of gestational and lactational exposure to heptachlor epoxide on age at puberty and reproductive function in men and women

“…Concentrations of 17 of 21 organochlorine pesticides or their metabolites in breast milk were higher for cryptorchid cases than controls (Damgaard et al, 2006). Concentrations of the eight most abundant insecticide metabolites, including heptachlor epoxide, were associated with cryptorchidism as a group, but only concentrations of trans-chlordane were individually associated with cryptorchidism (Damgaard et al, 2006). Higher serum heptachlor epoxide levels in third trimester women were not associated with risk of cryptorchidism in their sons (Pierik et al, 2007), although odds ratios were 41 for six of seven persistent organochlorine insecticides measured, including oxychlordane and heptachlor epoxide.…”

“…Concentrations of 17 of 21 organochlorine pesticides or their metabolites in breast milk were higher for cryptorchid cases than controls (Damgaard et al, 2006). Concentrations of the eight most abundant insecticide metabolites, including heptachlor epoxide, were associated with cryptorchidism as a group, but only concentrations of trans-chlordane were individually associated with cryptorchidism (Damgaard et al, 2006).…”