Performance on the Modified Card Sorting Test by normal, healthy individuals: Relationship to general intellectual ability and demographic variables

Abstract

The performance of individuals on the MCST is more closely associated with general intellectual ability than with demographic variables.

Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST): Normative data for the Latin American Spanish speaking adult population

“…These findings tend to concur with the previous literature. Although one study found men to make more perseverative errors than women (Lineweaver et al, 1999), most studies have found no gender differences in performance on the M-WCST (Caffarra et al, 2010;Obonsawin et al, 1999). In light of the previous literature, the results from the current study suggest that gender should not be taken into account in calculating percentiles for the M-WCST in Latin America.…”

“…However, Plumet, Gil, & Gaonac'h, (2005) found that education no longer had an effect on distractive errors after age 70, and attentional focus on sorting rules were more affected by age than education. Total number of errors on the M-WCST (Bird, Papadopoulou, Ricciardelli, Rossor, & Cipolotti, 2004), number of categories completed (Bird et al, 2004;Obonsawin et al, 1999), number and percent of perseverative errors (Obonsawin et al, 1999) have been significantly associated with IQ. Lineweaver et al (1999) found that sex is associated with non-perseverative errors, such that men make more of these errors than women, but generally there are no sex differences for the M-WCST (Caffarra, Vezzadini, Dieci, Zonato, & Venneri, 2010;Obonsawin et al, 1999).…”

“…Additionally, Axelrod & Henry (1992) demonstrated an increase in perseverative errors after age 60, and Crawford, Bryan, Luszcs, Obonsawin, & Stewart, (2000) found declined performance in those aged 60 to 75 compared to 18 to 60 year olds. Years of education have been negatively associated with non-perseverative errors (de Zubicaray et al, 1998), perseverative errors (Obonsawin et al, 1999), and positively related to number of categories achieved (de Zubicaray et al, 1998;Lineweaver et al, 1999). However, Plumet, Gil, & Gaonac'h, (2005) found that education no longer had an effect on distractive errors after age 70, and attentional focus on sorting rules were more affected by age than education.…”

“…In a review of the M-WCST, de Zubicaray & Ashton (1996) compiled a summary of healthy control data before any norma-tive studies had been conducted. Normative data for healthy English-speaking adults have been obtained by Obonsawin et al (1999) from 146 individuals between the ages of 16 and 75 years, and by Lineweaver and colleagues (1999) from 229 individuals between the ages of 45 and 91. In Italy, norms have also been developed for adults between the ages of 20 and 90 years (Caffarra et al, 2004), and for children between the ages of 4 and 13 years (Cianchett, Corona, Foscoliano, Contu, & Sannio-Fancello, 2007).…”

“…Because the M-WCST is considered its own measure of executive functioning (de Zubicaray & Ashton, 1996), scores should not be compared to norms of the WCST. Normative studies on the M-WCST to date have largely ignored the effects of race and ethnicity (e.g., Lineweaver et al, 1999;Obonsawin et al, 1999). It is imperative to develop norms specifically for the Latin American population to accurately assess deficits in executive functioning of the general population, and in the future, elderly and rehabilitation populations in order to identify significant executive dysfunction and implement appropriate treatment interventions.…”