Perceptual automaticity in expert chess players: Parallel encoding of chess relations

Abstract

A check detection task in a 5´5 section of the chessboard, containing a King and one or two potential checking pieces was employed. The checking status (i.e., the presence or absence of a check) and the number of attackers (one or two) were manipulated. It was found that the reaction time cost for adding a distractor was differentially greater in no trials than yes trials for novice, but not for expert, chess players. In addition, we contrasted standard check detection trials with trials in which one of two attackers was cued (colored red) and the task was to determine the checking status of the cued attacker while ignoring the other attacker. We documented a Stroop-like interference effect on trials in which a cued nonchecking attacker appeared together with an attacker that was checking (i.e., incongruent). These findings suggest automatic and parallel encoding procedures for chess relations in experts.

The perceptual aspect of skilled performance in chess: Evidence from eye movements

“…The finding that piece saliency influences the selection of experts' saccadic endpoints during the first 1-2 sec following display onset clearly supports the role of parafoveal or peripheral processing of chess configurations in guiding their eye movements and is consistent with the view that skilled players can encode chess-relation information in parallel (Reingold, Charness, Schultetus, & Stampe, 2001). This is the case because random or systematic region-by-region scanning patterns (e.g., a reading-like pattern from the top-left to the bottom-right section of the chessboard) would not be expected to result in similar findings of saccadic selectivity by piece salience.…”

“…In order to examine these early perceptual encoding processes, we required chess players at different skill levels to choose the best move for simple, tactically active chess positions while we monitored their eye-fixation patterns. If more skilled players can extract relational information about piece clusters more efficiently than less skilled players (e.g., in parallel, as seen in Reingold, Charness, Pomplun, & Stampe, 2001;Reingold, Charness, Schultetus, & Stampe, 2001), we hypothesize that skilled players' first few seconds of fixations will be characterized by a greater likelihood of fixating on empty squares (in order to maximize information extraction from surrounding piece-occupied squares). Also, when more skilled players fixate squares occupied by pieces, they should be more likely to fixate salient pieces.…”

“…In recent studies, we have used eye-fixation data to supplement information available from reaction time data to demonstrate an early perceptual advantage through parallel encoding of chess relations for more skilled players in a simple check detectiontask (Reingold,Charness, Pomplun, & Stampe, 2001) and to improve our understanding of the hazards of expertise (susceptibility to Stroop-like interference; Reingold, Charness, Schultetus, & Stampe, 2001). …”

“…In another check-detection task (Reingold, Charness, Schultetus, & Stampe, 2001), a 5 3 5 section of the chessboard containinga King and two potential checking pieces (i.e., attackers) was employed. On some trials, one of two attackers was cued (colored red), and the task was to determine the checking status of the cued attacker while ignoring the other attacker.…”

The development of face expertise: Evidence for a qualitative change in processing

“…Such systematised knowledge leads to improved memory when consistent with internal schemas (Simon & Barenfeld, 1969;Simon & Gilmartin, 1973 see also Chase & Simon, 1973a, 1973bDeGroot, 1965DeGroot, , 1966DeGroot & Gobet, 1996;Gobet & Simon, 1996a, 1996b. Wider perceptual fields are observed in expert footballers (Williams & Davids, 1997) and quicker processing from fewer fixations and greater chunking is observed in expert chess players Reingold, Charness, Schiltetus, & Stampe, 2001) and radiologists (Kundel & Nodine, 1975). Indeed, the automatisation of perceptual processing (Vurpillot, 1968) and attentional shifting requires less effort than inexpert processing as it is based on an unconscious and automatic process.…”