Peers and the Maintenance of Sex-Typed Behavior: The Development of Children's Conceptions of Cross-Gender Behavior in Their Peers

Beyond Discrete Categories: Studying Multiracial, Intersex, and Transgender Children Will Strengthen Basic Developmental Science

“…With few exceptions, the study of perceptions of gender and sex within developmental psychology has focused on the perceptions of prototypical boys and girls-those with clear sex assignment at birth and whose sex aligns with their gender. One exception has been an occasional study of children's responses to peers with gender counter-stereotypical preferences (e.g., Carter & McCloskey, 1984;Martin, 1989;Theimer, Killen, & Stangor, 2001), but even here the children are presumed to match a stereotype of the "other" gender rather than being conceived of as nonbinary. Of course, focusing on typical boys and girls is reasonable in many cases; they are, after all, the overwhelming majority.…”

Gendered Leisure Activity Behavior Among Norwegian Adolescents Across Different Socio-Economic Status Groups

“…It has further been suggested that through interactions with others, children experience pressure to conform to gender norms, which may result in a reduction of genderatypical characteristics and greater adherence to gender expectations (Egan & Perry, 2001). Empirical work has furthermore found that children disapprove of peers who engage in gender-atypical behavior (Blakemore, 2003;Carter & McCloskey, 1984;Lobel, 1994;McAninch, Milich, Crumbo, & Funtowicz, 1996), especially gender-atypical boys who have been found to be more prone to adolescent bullying, and also psychological distress (Young & Sweeting, 2004) and lower levels of school adjustment (Ueno & McWilliams, 2010). Adolescence is a vulnerable time, and the felt pressure to participate in activities congruent with their gender may be high.…”

Do Men Advance Faster Than Women? Debunking the Gender Performance Gap in Two Massively Multiplayer Online Games

“…Gender disparity thus propagates through socialization processes, starting as early as parental encouragement of children's gender-typical behaviors (Lytton & Romney, 1991) and continuing through the reinforcement of gender stereotypes from peers (Carter & McCloskey, 1984), teachers (Hilliard & Liben, 2010), and media (Dill & Thill, 2007;Gerding & Signorielli, 2014).…”