Patterns of mineral lick visitation by spider monkeys and howler monkeys in Amazonia: are licks perceived as risky areas?

Abstract

Mineral licks--also known as "salados," "saladeros," or "collpas"--are specific sites in tropical and temperate ecosystems where a large diversity of mammals and birds come regularly to feed on soil. Although the reasons for vertebrate geophagy are not completely understood, animals are argued to obtain a variety of nutritional and health benefits from the ingestion of soil at mineral licks. We studied the temporal patterns of mineral lick use by white-bellied spider monkey (Ateles belzebuth) and red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) in a lowland rain forest in Amazonian Ecuador. Using camera and video traps at four different mineral licks, combined with behavioral follows of one group of spider monkeys, we documented rates of mineral lick visitation by both primate species and the relative frequency and intensity of mineral lick use by spider monkeys. On the basis of 1,612 days and 888 nights of mineral lick monitoring, we found that A. belzebuth and A. seniculus both visit mineral licks frequently throughout the year (on average ∼14% of days for both species), and mineral lick visitation was influenced by short-term environmental conditions (e.g. sunny and dry weather). For spider monkeys, the area surrounding the lick was also the most frequently and most intensively used region within the group's home range. The fact that spider monkeys spent long periods at the lick area before coming to the ground to obtain soil, and the fact that both species visited the lick preferentially during dry sunny conditions (when predator detectability is presumed to be relatively high) and visited simultaneously more often than expected by chance, together suggest that licks are indeed perceived as risky areas by these primates. We suggest that howler and spider monkeys employ behavioral strategies aimed at minimizing the probability of predation while visiting the forest floor at risky mineral lick sites.

Increased folivory in brown spider monkeys Ateles hybridus living in a fragmented forest in Colombia

“…For spider monkeys, a folivorous diet might increase the amount and diversity of toxins and secondary metabolites consumed, which could have both direct and indirect influences on their nutrition and health. It may be significant, then, that in most long-term studies spider monkeys are reported to feed on clay from mineral licks (Izawa 1993, Link et al 2011a, which is suggested to be one means by which they cope with the effects of secondary metabolites. Spider monkeys at San Juan and elsewhere are also reported to feed on decayed wood from dead standing trees (Suarez 2006, Di Fiore et al 2008, Chaves et al 2012, which may allow them ac cess to additional minerals not otherwise available in their diet (Krishnamani & Ma haney 2000, Ferrari et al 2008.…”

“…At Serranía de Las Quinchas, an inter-Andean forest site in northern Colombia, brown spider monkeys fed almost exclusively on ripe, fleshy fruits all year (Link et al 2012) and only complemented their diet with leaves and other items for approximately 6% of the time they spent feeding. Spider monkeys at Las Quinchas frequently visit mineral licks, in a similar pattern to the behavior of spider monkeys in western Amazonia (Izawa 1993, Link et al 2011a, to obtain complementary nutrients or minerals not readily available in their diets or to mitigate the effects of secondary metabolites contained in leaves and other vegetative parts of plants (Krishnamani & Mahaney 2000).…”

Livestock farmers perceptions on the relevance of natural licks in Igambang’ombe Division, Tharaka-Nithi County, Kenya

“…One of the challenges facing many smallholder livestock producers is inability to satisfy mineral requirement of their animals leading to reduced productivity [8] More than 50 species of animals in the world have been reported to ingest various types of earth materials in the natural licks [9]. The reasons for consuming the licks are not clearly understood, but animals are argued to obtain both nutritional and health benefits [10]. Some perceived benefits from natural licks to the animals are; sources of minerals and to alleviate the effects of digestive disorders and toxic plant secondary metabolites [11].…”

Uso do chão por <i>Brachyteles arachnoides</i> no Parque Nacional Serra dos Órgãos, Teresópolis, Brasil

“…Os primatas neotropicais são mamíferos arborícolas (Heymann, 1998), cujos eventos de uso do chão têm sido relacionados, principalmente, a contextos de fragmentação do habitat e exploração de recursos específicos (Schön-Ybarra, 1984;Fragaszy, 1986;Mendes, 1989;BiccaMarques e Calegaro-Marques, 1995;Almeida-Silva et al, 2005;Defler, 2009;Haugaasen e Peres, 2009;Spagnoletti et al, 2011;Link et al, 2011;Barnett et al, 2012). Mourthé et al (2007) propõem que a perturbação do habitat e a presença de pesquisadores parecem facilitar o uso do chão por muriquis-do-norte habituados na Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Feliciano Miguel Abdala em Caratinga (MG), enquanto Tabacow et al (2009) sugerem que o comportamento desta população representa uma expansão de nicho em um habitat fragmentado, onde as oportunidades de dispersão são limitadas, facilitada por uma difusão da tradição entre os indivíduos.…”