“…Yet information on FXI remains scant for most countries. As a result, macroeconomic research on a wide range of aspects related to the use of FXI has often relied on coarse proxies-typically, changes in the stock of a central bank's reserves, or reserve flows from balance-of-payment statistics 1 -including for analysis of exchange rate regimes (see, for example, , currency manipulation Gagnon 2012Gagnon , 2013, and exchange rate management more broadly Dominguez 2012Dominguez , 2020Adler, Chang, and Wang 2021). These coarse proxies of FXI, however, are often polluted by valuation changes and investment income flows, as well as distorted by central bank foreign currency transactions vis-à-vis residents and nonresidents that affect the level of reserves but do not constitute foreign exchange intervention (that is, exchange of local and foreign currency assets).…”