“…Nonetheless, both 2D and 3D cell line-based tumor models lack the in vivo tumor heterogeneity, where different cells within the same tumor site can have quite distinct and diverse genetic, epigenetic, phenotypic and tumor antigen expression profiles. To this end, the recent emergence of patient-derived organoids (PDOs) aims to predict patient response to chemotherapeutic, immunotherapeutic, and other targeted regimens across different cancer types (breast, lung, colorectal, gastrointestinal, and other cancers) [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. PDOs are generated from patient solid tumor tissue, which is enzymatically digested to obtain tumor cells that are then cultured ex vivo in specialized basement membrane matrices allowing them to form 3D, tumor-resembling, organ-specific structures [ 14 ].…”