Pathogenicity of Salmonella During Schistosoma-Salmonella Co-infections and the Importance of the Gut Microbiota

Abstract

Graphical Abstract Antibiotic inefficacy in treating bacterial infections is largely studied in the context of developing resistance mechanisms. However, little attention has been paid to combined diseases mechanisms, interspecies pathogenesis and the resulting impact on antimicrobial treatment. This review will consider the co-infections of Salmonella and Schistosoma mansoni . It summarises the protective mechanisms that the pathophysiology of the two infections confer, which leads to an antibiotic protection phenomenon. This review will elucidate the functional characteristics of the gut microbiota in the context of these co-infections, the pathogenicity of these infections in infected mice, and the efficacy of the antibiotics used in treatment of these co-infections over time. Salmonella - Schistosoma interactions and the mechanism for antibiotic protection are not well established. However, antimicrobial drug inefficacy is an existing phenomenon in these co-infections. The treatment of schistosomiasis to ensure the efficacy of antibiotic therapy for bacterial infections should be considered in co-infected patients. Co-infections of Salmonella and Schistosoma mansoni confers the protective mechanisms that give ineffetive treatment of salmonella. The functional characteristics of the gut microbiota in the context of these co-infections influence the pathogenicity of the both pathogens thereby drecreasing immunity and brings changes in gut metabolism.

The connection between epigenetics and gut microbiota‐current perspective

“…In short, through metabolic and epigenetic reprogramming, innate immune memory is imprinted in innate cells like natural killer cells and macrophages 62,81 . This programming has been studied to influence AD through oxidative stress, amyloid protein and neuroinflammation 82,83 .…”

“…80 In short, through metabolic and epigenetic reprogramming, innate immune memory is imprinted in innate cells like natural killer cells and macrophages. 62,81 This programming has been studied to influence AD through oxidative stress, amyloid protein and neuroinflammation. 82,83 Moreover, the pathogenesis of AD is associated with Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Escherichia coli, Actinobacteria, Verrucomicrobia, and Tenericutes.…”

Neglected gut microbiome: interactions of the non-bacterial gut microbiota with enteric pathogens

“…Similarly, helminth and trematode co-infections with Non-Typhoidal Salmonella are common in certain populations. 209 , 210 Helminth worms, such as Heligmosomoides polygyrus , have been shown to facilitate high levels of S . Typhimurium colonization of the small intestine ( Figure 6 ).…”

“…Typhimurium pathogenicity by impairing the host immune response. 210 , 213 , 214 Blood flukes, like Schistosoma mansoni , have complex life cycles in which different stages of development are associated with infection of various parts of the body. These organisms penetrate the skin and circulate in the blood to the lungs and heart, eventually settling in the liver and undergoing maturation into the adult worm form.…”