Pastoralist Resource Use and Access in Somalia: A Changing Context of Development, Environmental Stress and Conflict

Abstract

Unruh JD (1995) Pastoralist resource use and access in Somalia: a changing context of development, environmental stress, and conflict. In: Sorenson J (ed.) Disaster and Development on the Horn of Africa. Macmillan, London Pastoral Systems Most nomads keep a mix of livestock species2 to maximize benefits and minimize risks. This takes advantage of variations among species with respect to drought tolerance and the utilization of different types of vegetation, and supplies nomads with milk, meat, transport, investment, and income (Samatar 1989a:6). Camels comprise approximately half of the biomass of most transhumant herds for all regions. The other half varies from north to south, mainly sheep and goats in the north and center, and cattle in the south. The proportion of drought resistant stock (camels and goats) traditionally increased in response to drier climatic conditions (Samatar 1989a:28). Mobility and flexibility are required to make good use of meager range resources, thus units of production are small and widely dispersed (Samatar 1989b:28). The logic of the pastoral economy is to minimize risk in order to secure preservation of the family (Samatar 1989a:6; Samatar 1989b:28). As an adaptation to ecosystems in which forage and water are critical parameters, transhumant herding largely depends on dry season forage within reach of dry season watering points (Scudder 1989:6; Johnson 1969:5; Breman et al 1979:227). When forage is depleted or access to it and adjoining water supplies are interrupted, the result can be land degradation, livestock die-offs, conflict, and rapid sales as pastoralists seek to realign resource access arrangements, utilize already marginal land, and cope with reductions in herd viability. Nomadic cooperation, bound by lineage and alliance, traditionally related primarily to confrontation and hostility under ecological conditions in the acute competition for scarce resources (Lewis 1961:240). Dependence by several lineage-segments on common pasture and water creates tension, especially in the dry season, when pressure on land resources is greater and disputes increase (Lewis 1961:243). The lineage system and personal relationships between pastoralists facilitates a degree of insurance against stock loss by the possibility of borrowing animals from fellow stock-owners with a shared lineage or with whom exchange relationships exist. This occurs through the exercise of rights and obligations involved in such relationships, and carries with it an assurance of reciprocity (Poulsen 1990:146; Samatar 1989a:40; Ornas 1990:119). Membership in such groups, especially lineage groups, implies obligation to assist and be assisted in times of crisis (Ornas 1990:119). In Somalia six major clan-families and their subgroups (clans) retain access to most land (Figure 1) (Samatar 1993:72; Cassanelli 1982:16). Clan territories are not distinct. Instead they constitute general areas and home wells associated with particular groups (Gunn 1990:114). Land traditionally is not alienated from the clan. If a past...

Changing conflict resolution institutions in the Ethiopian pastoral commons: the role of armed confrontation in rule-making

“…When rules seen as legitimate and effective for limiting access to resources are lacking or becoming ineffective, free riding, encroachment and overuse of the resource can occur (Hardin, 1968;Lawry, 1990;Ostrom et al, 1999). However in situations where resource users know well in advance the repercussions associated with an inability to exclude based on rules, confrontation and violence for purposes of exclusion are also options, particularly if such confrontation falls out readily along group lines and/or conflict is an ongoing and established alternative (Gadamu, 1994;Gebre-Mariam, 1994;Kuney, 1994;Ocan, 1994;Unruh, 1995a).…”

“…The arrangement is characterized by changing allegiance between clans and their further segmented units, in order to access spatially changing grazing and watering resources. The reigning situation of alliance between the various units then defines rights and obligations (Bennett, 1993;Unruh, 1995a). Making and remaking agreements between clan units is important in preventing land degradation and guaranteeing long-term rangeland productivity (Samatar, 1989;af Ornas, 1990;Poulsen, 1990).…”

“…This overlap increases in times of drought as members of one clan may intrude into another clan's territory when its own grazing and watering resources become scarce, provoking mutual hostilities, which in some cases have resulted in clan wars. While such a cycle of resource scarcity and territorial intrusion and confrontation among clans and segments thereof have always been a part of Somali pastoralism, such conflicts and wars have increased in recent decades due to declining ecological conditions and increased in-access to traditional resources (Unruh, 1995a). Substantial study has been made of Somali history, ecology, pastoralism, and contemporary land use problems (e.g.…”

“…Pastoralism is a primary form of livelihood in the Horn and the management of pastoral commons is particularly difficult in terms of conflict and conflict resolution (Fratkin, 1994;Gebre-Mariam, 1994;Ocan, 1994;Salih, 1994;Unruh, 1995a). While problems in the commons can often be seen as falling out along group lines (ethnic, clan), access and use of common property resources (CPRs) play a fundamental role in pastoral livelihood, identity, and conflict (Gadamu, 1994;Gebre-Mariam, 1994;Ocan, 1994;Salih, 1994;Unruh, 1995b).…”

10 Unmaking the Commons: Collective Action, Property Rights, and Resource Appropriation among (Agro-)Pastoralists in Eastern Ethiopia

“…These lineages and networks across clans or subclans have played an essential role in establishing the reciprocity principle (Unruh, 1995). The Somali pastoral society is organized on a genealogical basis where lineages and their segmented units are the basis for defining rights to clan territories and their communal grazing (and water) resources (Lewis, [1961] 1999).…”