Parental PTSD and psychological reactions during the COVID-19 pandemic among offspring of Holocaust survivors.

Abstract

Objective: Previous evidence suggests heightened sensitivity to life-threatening challenges among offspring of Holocaust survivors (OHS). Therefore, this study examined the psychological reactions of aging OHS during the COVID-19 pandemic. Method: A convenience sample (N = 297, mean age = 66.85) of North American Jews rated posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms for their parents and for themselves. They further rated their psychological distress, COVID-19-related worries, loneliness, and social support. Respondents were divided into four groups: OHS with two parents with probable PTSD, with one such parent, with no such parent, and comparisons whose parents did not undergo the Holocaust. Results: OHS with two parents with PTSD reported the highest levels of PTSD symptoms. Controlling for respondents' own PTSD, OHS with two parents with PTSD reported higher psychological distress relative to comparisons. Moreover, OHS with parental PTSD reported higher loneliness relative to OHS without parental PTSD or comparisons. The groups did not differ in COVID-19-related worries or social support. Conclusions: The distress experienced by OHS with parental PTSD seems more general, and is possibly related to the multiple coalescing crises that occurred since the pandemic began, rather than to the health risk associated directly with COVID-19. Moreover, while OHS acknowledge having good social support, some of them nevertheless feel lonely. This possibly reflects unique interpersonal difficulties characteristic in Holocaust survivor families. These findings suggest that OHS with parental PTSD (especially when both parents had symptoms) represent a group of older adults who are relatively susceptible to negative psychological effects of the current pandemic. Clinical Impact StatementPreliminary COVID-19-related studies indicate that older adults might be vulnerable to negative mental health effects associated with social distancing and isolation. Identifying older adults who might be particularly vulnerable will allow more timely effective intervention and prevention of adverse effects. We identified vulnerabilities to PTSD, psychological distress, and loneliness among aging offspring of Holocaust survivors with parental PTSD, which render these older adults more susceptible to negative effects related to COVID-19 and to the coalescing crises that followed. Parental PTSD might constitute a risk factor for such vulnerabilities also in other groups of older adults.

Echoes of ancestral trauma: Russo-Ukrainian War salience and psychological distress among subsequent generations in Holocaust survivor families.

“…These results correspond with the pattern of Holocaust G1, mentioned above, of high risk of distress due to repeated threats of terror and war (Dekel & Hobfoll, 2007). In general, Holocaust G1 demonstrated higher distress when confronted with additional stress (Kimron & Cohen, 2012), which was similarly reported in subsequent generations (Baider et al, 2000;Shrira & Felsen, 2021;Solomon et al, 1988). From this viewpoint, the current findings strengthen a model of resilience and vulnerability in three generations of Holocaust survivor families, in which vulnerability predominately develops when faced with traumatic or stressful experiences (Shrira, 2015).…”

“…Specifically, research in Holocaust survivor families indicate that Holocaust G2 are more perturbed about existent and probable threats (Shrira, 2015). Studies show vulnerability in Holocaust G2 when confronted with stressful life events and life-threatening circumstances including combat (Solomon et al, 1988), cancer (Baider et al, 2000), and the COVID-19 pandemic (Shrira & Felsen, 2021). Correspondingly, two studies underscored vulnerability among Holocaust G2 relative to comparisons in the face of the Iranian nuclear threat on Israel (Shrira, 2015).…”

Historical intergenerational trauma transmission model: A comprehensive framework of family and offspring processes of transgenerational trauma.

“…There is ample evidence that many communities that have experienced HT face ongoing oppression and discrimination (e.g., refugees, Hajak et al, 2021; Black Americans, Jones et al, 2020). Furthermore, currently the most supported transgenerational impact of trauma in the population-specific literature is a heightened reactivity to stress (e.g., Shrira & Felsen, 2021), suggesting that any comprehensive model of HT and its effects must consider potential current stressors, especially ongoing experiences of racism and religious discrimination.…”

Family involvement and secondary traumatization in Holocaust survivor families: An actor–partner interdependence model.

“…Nevertheless, a more recent meta-analytic review indicated higher posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms among Holocaust G2 relative to comparisons (Payne & Berle, 2021). Other researchers have identified vulnerability among Holocaust G2 when coping with stressful life events and life-threatening circumstances (e.g., Baider et al, 2000; Shrira & Felsen, 2021; Solomon et al, 1988), indicating a combination of resilience and vulnerability (Giladi & Bell, 2013). This dispute is notable globally, as the long-term consequences of the Holocaust have ramifications in a widespread context of trauma among older survivors of atrocities around the world (Greenblatt-Kimron, 2021) and underscores the long-term effects of trauma on individuals and families in other trauma-exposed groups including families of Cambodian survivors of the Khmer Rouge Regime (Lin & Suyemoto, 2016), American Indian native groups (Hartmann & Gone, 2016), children in Northern Ireland (McNally, 2014), and survivors of political violence in Lithuania (Kazlauskas et al, 2017).…”