Parent responses to childhood gender nonconformity: Effects of parent and child characteristics.

Abstract

Many children display traits, interests, or behaviors not stereotypically associated with their sex. Little is known about the factors influencing how parents respond to their children engaging in gender-nonconforming behaviors, yet the way parents respond to such behaviors may be critical to supporting children's development-particularly among children who frequently display gender-nonconforming traits and behaviors. This study examined parent and child characteristics that relate to how parents respond, or would respond, to gender-nonconforming behaviors. A community sample of parents (N ϭ 236) completed an online survey that assessed how frequently their child engaged in gender-nonconforming behaviors, their own gender-atypical traits, attitudes toward gender, parenting style, and their discomfort with and attempts to change their child's gender-nonconforming behaviors. Parents reported greater discomfort with gender nonconformity when their child was male and less gender nonconforming and when they held more traditional gender role attitudes. After controlling for discomfort, parents reported more frequent efforts to change gender-nonconforming behaviors when their child was male, when they held more traditional attitudes toward gender roles, and if they had a warmer parenting style. Notably, boys' gender nonconformity was negatively associated with parent efforts to change behaviors. These data explicate the parent-child contexts associated with parents' being uncomfortable with their child engaging in gender-nonconforming behaviors and intervening to change those behaviors to fit in with societal expectations for gender. Results from this study could inform intervention efforts to increase parental support for gender-nonconforming youths. Public Significance StatementIt is common for youths to occasionally display interests or behaviors that are not typically associated with their sex assigned at birth, yet some parents are uncomfortable with diverse gender expressions. This study identifies individual characteristics of parents who feel uncomfortable with their child's engaging in gender-nonconforming behaviors, and of those who may discourage their child's gender nonconformity. Results from this study could be used to identify parents that may benefit from gender-affirmative intervention or education programs.

An Integrative Review of Experiences Parenting Transgender and Gender Diverse Children

“…Fathers of children AFAB were less likely to feel ambiguous loss (Coolhart et al, 2017). These findings are consistent with evidence that parents have more discomfort with gender diverse behaviors in AMAB children compared with AFAB children (Spivey et al, 2018). Men are also known to react less positively to TGD youth when samples are controlled for religious affiliation, conservative political views, and traditional views of gender (Elischberger et al, 2016).…”

Psychopathological symptom network structure in transgender and gender queer youth reporting parental psychological abuse: a network analysis

“…Previous research has shown how parents who were uncomfortable with their child’s gender non-conforming behaviours, and intervened to change their gender back to their birth-assigned sex, did so in order to force their child to meet their societal gender expectations [ 45 ]. Previous research also showed that in gender-atypical youth, half of their parents tried to change their behaviours [ 46 ].…”

“…Parents should accept, respect, and appreciate youth from a diverse set of gender expressions [ 25 ]. Research suggests that providing interventions to increase parental support for gender non-conforming youth could have a positive effect on well-being [ 45 ].…”

Childhood gender‐typed behavior and emotional or peer problems: a prospective birth‐cohort study

“…One explanation for the association between gender-nonconforming behavior and more emotional problems for boys only is that the strength and nature of gendered expectations may differ for the sexes, for example, gender nonconformity may be less accepted in boys than girls, both by other children (e.g. Conry-Murray, Kim, & Turiel, 2015) and by parents (Spivey, Huebner, & Diamond, 2018). Stigma processes may then contribute to poorer mental health.…”