Parasitism, the diversity of life, and paleoparasitology

Intestinal helminths of capybaras, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, from Venezuela

“…It is difficult to trace the thresholds between benefit and damage because the parasite-host-environment system is dynamic. We would therefore agree with Araújo et al (2003) that the concept of parasitism may encompass commensalism, mutualism, and symbiosis.…”

Detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA by polymerase chain reaction in experimentally desiccated tissues

“…DNA from Ascaris lumbricoides eggs (Loreille et al 2001, Loreille & Bouchet 2003 and Enterobius vermicularis (Iniguez et al 2003a, b), found in sediments from latrines or coprolites, were used in studies comparing the present parasite genome to sequences of millions of years ago. Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA, extracted from Egyptian mummies was compared across different periods of time (Zink et al 2003) and Trypanosoma cruzi DNA, retrieved from Chilean and Peruvian mummies, dated of up to 6000 years old has allowed some hypotheses about the origin and dispersion of Chagas disease among American pre-Colombian populations (Ferreira et al 2000, Guhl et al 2000, Madden et al 2001, Araujo et al 2003. However, Toxoplasma gondii, one of the most prevalent parasites worldwide, has never been detected in archaeological material.…”

Animal helminths in human archaeological remains: a review of zoonoses in the past

“…The A. lumbricoides cycle is direct and independent of another animal, and its origin is by the phylogenetic route, that is, descending from a common ancestor of humans and primates 3,4 . Parasites originating from the ecological route can be classified in two categories: (1) those that originated from other species and underwent modification over the course of the evolutionary process and became species-specific to humans (meaning that they differ from the original species) and (2) zoonoses.…”

“…Paleoparasitological findings feature not only specific human parasites, inherited from ancestors, but also those acquired over the course of hominid dispersion and biological and cultural evolution 3 . Therefore, in paleoparasitology it is very important to know whether the coprolite is of human or other animal origin.…”