Paper Notebooks vs. Mobile Devices: Brain Activation Differences During Memory Retrieval

Abstract

It remains to be determined how different inputs for memory-encoding, such as the use of paper notebooks or mobile devices, affect retrieval processes. We compared three groups of participants who read dialogues on personal schedules and wrote down the scheduled appointments on a calendar using a paper notebook (Note), an electronic tablet (Tablet), or a smartphone (Phone). After the retention period for an hour including an interference task, we tested recognition memory of those appointments with visually presented questions in a retrieval task, while scanned with functional magnetic resonance imaging. We obtained three major results. First, the duration of writing down schedules was significantly shorter for the Note group than the Tablet and Phone groups, and accuracy was much higher for the Note group in easier (i.e., more straightforward) questions. Because the input methods were equated as much as possible between the Note and Tablet groups, these results indicate that the cognitive processes for the Note group were deeper and more solid. Second, brain activations for all participants during the retrieval phase were localized in the bilateral hippocampus, precuneus, visual cortices, and language-related frontal regions, confirming the involvement of verbalized memory retrieval processes for appointments. Third, activations in these regions were significantly higher for the Note group than those for the Tablet and Phone groups. These enhanced activations for the Note group could not be explained by general cognitive loads or task difficulty, because overall task performances were similar among the groups. The significant superiority in both accuracy and activations for the Note group suggested that the use of a paper notebook promoted the acquisition of rich encoding information and/or spatial information of real papers and that this information could be utilized as effective retrieval clues, leading to higher activations in these specific regions.

Paper-based versus digital-based learning among undergraduate medical, nursing and pharmaceutical students in Japan: a cross-sectional study

“…They observed brain activation in the hippocampus and precuneus, which are related to memory function during the deeper encoding and retrieval of specific information. They found that the activation in these areas was stronger in groups using a paper notebook than in those using digital devices, 30 indicating that using paper notebooks promotes active brain function. Digital devices can also encode information equally to paper; however, it is inferior to paper in storing information.…”

Unveiling Neurocognitive Disparities in Encoding and Retrieval between Paper and Digital Tablet-Based Learning

“…The findings indicated that accuracy in the retrieval was not significantly different among the three groups. On the other hand, the notebook learning group showed higher brain activity during the memory retrieval phases compared to the other groups [8]. Since task performances were similar among the three groups, higher brain activity in the notebook learning group could be considered using a greater amount of brain energy to produce the same level of results.…”

“…Although test performances did not significantly differ between the two groups, the digital tablet-based learning group showed higher brain activity while performing the task [1]. Furthermore, despite the fact that the stages of memory are divided into encoding and retrieval, and it has been shown that the brain offers different contributions in the encoding and retrieval phases [9][10][11], previous studies have not analyzed brain efficiency by learning media by stages, making it difficult to clearly identify at which stage there is a difference in brain efficiency [1,8] Consequently, there is ongoing debate regarding brain efficiency associated with learning through different media, and the question of how the brain efficiency of digital tablet-based learning differs from that of paper-based learning remains unclear. Furthermore, neither of the studies presented brain activity for the encoding and retrieval phases, leading to a challenge in pinpointing the specific phase where differences in brain efficiency occur.…”

Middle-schoolers’ reading and lexical-semantic processing depth in response to digital and print media: An N400 study

“…Umejima et al [ 35 ] also investigated encoding and retrieval from reading in different media, using functional resonance imaging (fMRI). For the encoding phase, participants read appointment information in three conditions: paper notebooks, digital tablets, and mobile phones.…”