Paper-based analytical devices for virus detection: Recent strategies for current and future pandemics

Abstract

The importance of user-friendly, inexpensive, sensitive, and selective detection of viruses has been highlighted again due to the recent Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Among the analytical tools, paper-based devices (PADs) have become a leading alternative for point-of-care (POC) testing. In this review, we discuss the recent development strategies and applications in nucleic acid-based, antibody/antigen-based and other affinity-based PADs using optical and electrochemical detection methods for sensing viruses. In addition, advantages and drawbacks of presented PADs are identified. Current state and insights towards future perspectives are presented regarding developing POC diagnosis platform for COVID-19. This review considers state-of-the-art technologies for further development and improvement in PADs performance for virus detection.

Engineering carbon nanotubes for sensitive viral detection

“…The engineering process of CNTs is obtained via covalent grafting, physical adsorption, and entrapment to form the CNTs-based nano-bio interfaces [ 22 ]. After the modification, the CNTs-based nanocomposites are immobilized by the bio-recognition elements such as aptamer, antibody, antigen, ssDNA, and RNA for specifically recognizing viruses [ 63 ]. According to the type of CNTs-based nano-bio interfaces, we classify the viral biosensors into three groups, covalently engineered CNTs, non-covalently engineered CNTs, and size-tunable CNTs arrays for viral detection.…”

“…The covalent immobilization of bio-recognition element is employed owing to the reaction between CNTs and amino, or carboxyl functional groups of the bio-recognition elements using cross-linkers EDC and NHS. The EDC/NHS coupling is used to activate carboxyl on CNTs or biomolecules for immobilizing bio-recognition element through amide bonds [ 63 ]. According to these physical signals (current, optical absorbance, heat, etc.…”

“…Although the CNTs-based viral biosensors are promising in the future due to their high sensitivity and long stability, their convenience and signal availability is also crucial during global pandemics. To tackle this issue, wearables and wireless communication will be the trend for viral detection [ 63 ], which will allow decision-makers to quickly obtain analysis results and give a timely decision in viral diagnosis.…”

A Coloration Biochip for Optical Virus Detection Based on Printed Single Nanoparticle Array

“…Current optical methods mainly rely on localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), [ 4 ] surface‐enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), [ 5 ] fluorescence spectroscopy [ 6 ] and colorimetry analysis. [ 7 ] Plasmonic nanoparticles arrays or periodic nanoholes are very sensitive to the refractive index of surrounding environment. [ 8 ] Therefore, binding of viruses can lead to a remarkable shift in the resonance angle.…”

A comparison of conventional and advanced electroanalytical methods to detect SARS-CoV-2 virus: A concise review

“… Alygizakis et al (2021) summarized the significance of analytical approaches employed to detect SARS-CoV-2 in waste water, specially focusing on wastewater epidemiology (WBE). Ozer and Henry (2021) reviewed the recent developments in the paper-based devices (PADs) for virus detection, also the further improvements required for PADs for sensing viruses were discussed.…”