Pacing Behaviour Development and Acquisition: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Background The goal-directed decision-making process of effort distribution (i.e. pacing) allows individuals to efficiently use energy resources as well as to manage the impact of fatigue on performance during exercise. Given the shared characteristics between pacing behaviour and other skilled behaviour, it was hypothesized that pacing behaviour would adhere to the same processes associated with skill acquisition and development. Methods PubMed, Web of Science and PsycINFO databases between January 1995 and January 2022 were searched for articles relating to the pacing behaviour of individuals (1) younger than 18 years of age, or (2) repeatedly performing the same exercise task, or (3) with different levels of experience. Results The search resulted in 64 articles reporting on the effect of age (n = 33), repeated task exposure (n = 29) or differing levels of experience (n = 13) on pacing behaviour. Empirical evidence identifies the development of pacing behaviour starts during childhood (~ 10 years old) and continues throughout adolescence. This development is characterized by an increasingly better fit to the task demands, encompassing the task characteristics (e.g. duration) and environment factors (e.g. opponents). Gaining task experience leads to an increased capability to attain a predetermined pace and results in pacing behaviour that better fits task demands. Conclusions Similar to skilled behaviour, physical maturation and cognitive development likely drive the development of pacing behaviour. Pacing behaviour follows established processes of skill acquisition, as repeated task execution improves the match between stimuli (e.g. task demands and afferent signals) and actions (i.e. continuing, increasing or decreasing the exerted effort) with the resulting exercise task performance. Furthermore, with increased task experience attentional capacity is freed for secondary tasks (e.g. incorporating opponents) and the goal selection is changed from achieving task completion to optimizing task performance. As the development and acquisition of pacing resemble that of other skills, established concepts in the literature (e.g. intervention-induced variability and augmented feedback) could enrich pacing research and be the basis for practical applications in physical education, healthcare, and sports.

The Role of the Social Environment in Pacing and Sports Performance: A Narrative Review from a Self-Regulatory Perspective

“…Lastly, at the self-reflection phase coaches should be aware that the opponents could positively or negatively influence athletes’ affective reactions and should adapt their coaching behaviour accordingly [ 64 ]. Due to the important coach–athlete relationship in this self-regulatory framework of pacing and performance, we suggest coach education to take into consideration the link between self-regulation, motivation, and opponents in pacing and sports [ 19 , 71 ]. It should also take into account the coaching suggestions that we provided above and provide coaches with a methodical approach to optimise athletes’ pacing behaviour and performance.…”

“…Thus, the concept of SRL is relevant to pacing because skills such as planning, monitoring, and evaluating are thought to underpin the cyclical process of refining the performance template underpinning pacing behaviour [ 16 ]. By cycling through this process, the athletes’ pacing behaviour is adapted to the task demands (e.g., task duration, biomechanics, and environmental factors) resulting in improved exercise task performance [ 16 , 19 ]. The self-regulatory processes of pacing could be influenced by opponents as previous studies suggest [ 8 , 13 , 14 ], but this has not been explored in depth.…”

“…It is not well documented how athletes can use their opponents as an influential factor in enhancing self-regulatory skills, which are important in pacing. This is remarkable considering the influence of the social environment in developing and optimizing athletes’ pacing behaviour [ 6 , 19 ]. The further investigation of the relationship between self-regulatory skills, pacing, and the opponents could inform coaches about the appropriate strategies that they should follow to enhance athletes’ pacing optimisation in training and competition and guide the development of athletes [ 16 ].…”

Unraveling the Role of (Meta-) Cognitive Functions in Pacing Behavior Development during Adolescence: Planning, Monitoring, and Adaptation

“…With regard to the individual, a recent series of robust longitudinal studies evidenced that the pacing behavior of athletes is not innate but rather develops throughout adolescence (15)(16)(17). It was ventured that with age, individuals gain an appreciation for their performance capabilities and how these fit the task demands (8). Emphasizing the importance of pacing behavior development, it was noted that a long-term misdistribution of effort could not only lead to suboptimal performance, which could decrease the individuals' feeling of competence and enjoyment during exercise, but could also result in overexertion, injury, and dropout of sports and exercise (8,18).…”

“…It was ventured that with age, individuals gain an appreciation for their performance capabilities and how these fit the task demands (8). Emphasizing the importance of pacing behavior development, it was noted that a long-term misdistribution of effort could not only lead to suboptimal performance, which could decrease the individuals' feeling of competence and enjoyment during exercise, but could also result in overexertion, injury, and dropout of sports and exercise (8,18). Aiding the pacing behavior of younger individuals could therefore aid their sense of competence and confidence, increasing their enthusiasm and engagement in sports and exercise (19).…”