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The pancreatic islets are richly innervated by autonomic nerves. The islet parasympathetic nerves emanate from intrapancreatic ganglia, which are controlled by preganglionic vagal nerves. The islet sympathetic nerves are postganglionic with the nerve cell bodies located in ganglia outside the pancreas. The sensory nerves originate from dorsal root ganglia near the spinal cord. Inside the islets, nerve terminals run close to the endocrine cells. In addition to the classic neurotransmitters acetylcholine and norepinephrine, several neuropeptides exist in the islet nerve terminals. These neuropeptides are vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide, gastrin-releasing polypeptide, and cocaineand amphetamine-regulated transcript in parasympathetic nerves; neuropeptide Y and galanin in the sympathetic nerves; and calcitonin gene-related polypeptide in sensory nerves. Activation of the parasympathetic nerves and administration of their neurotransmitters stimulate insulin and glucagon secretion, whereas activation of the sympathetic nerves and administration of their neurotransmitters inhibit insulin but stimulate glucagon secretion. The autonomic nerves contribute to the cephalic phase of insulin secretion, to glucagon secretion during hypoglycemia, to pancreatic polypeptide secretion, and to the inhibition of insulin secretion, which is seen during stress. In rodent models of diabetes, the number of islet autonomic nerves is upregulated. This review focuses on neural regulation of islet function, with emphasis on the neuropeptides. Diabetes 55 (Suppl. 2):S98 -S107, 2006 S ince the discovery of nerves in the pancreatic islet by Paul Langerhans in his thesis from 1869, the neural-islet axis has been explored by a number of neuroanatomists, physiologists, and endocrinologists (rev. in 1-3). It is currently known that branches of the parasympathetic and sympathetic as well as the sensory nervous system innervate the islets with nerve terminals ending closely to the islet endocrine cells. It is also known that these nerves affect islet hormone secretion. The classic neurotransmitters in the islet autonomic nerves are acetylcholine and norepinephrine. During the last decades, the contribution to neural regulation of islet function also by neuropeptides has been established (rev. in 4). Several neuropeptides are localized to islet nerve terminals, are released from the pancreatic nerves upon nerve stimulation, and influence islet hormone secretion. It is also known that the islet innervation is altered in animal models of type 2 diabetes (5). The autonomic nervous system has also been suggested to be involved in the regulation of islet mass (6). The present review highlights the role of neuropeptides in islet function. PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEMAnatomy and effects. The parasympathetic nerves innervating the pancreatic islets emanate from the pancreatic ganglia, which are innervated by preganglionic parasympathetic nerves originating in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Activ...
The pancreatic islets are richly innervated by autonomic nerves. The islet parasympathetic nerves emanate from intrapancreatic ganglia, which are controlled by preganglionic vagal nerves. The islet sympathetic nerves are postganglionic with the nerve cell bodies located in ganglia outside the pancreas. The sensory nerves originate from dorsal root ganglia near the spinal cord. Inside the islets, nerve terminals run close to the endocrine cells. In addition to the classic neurotransmitters acetylcholine and norepinephrine, several neuropeptides exist in the islet nerve terminals. These neuropeptides are vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide, gastrin-releasing polypeptide, and cocaineand amphetamine-regulated transcript in parasympathetic nerves; neuropeptide Y and galanin in the sympathetic nerves; and calcitonin gene-related polypeptide in sensory nerves. Activation of the parasympathetic nerves and administration of their neurotransmitters stimulate insulin and glucagon secretion, whereas activation of the sympathetic nerves and administration of their neurotransmitters inhibit insulin but stimulate glucagon secretion. The autonomic nerves contribute to the cephalic phase of insulin secretion, to glucagon secretion during hypoglycemia, to pancreatic polypeptide secretion, and to the inhibition of insulin secretion, which is seen during stress. In rodent models of diabetes, the number of islet autonomic nerves is upregulated. This review focuses on neural regulation of islet function, with emphasis on the neuropeptides. Diabetes 55 (Suppl. 2):S98 -S107, 2006 S ince the discovery of nerves in the pancreatic islet by Paul Langerhans in his thesis from 1869, the neural-islet axis has been explored by a number of neuroanatomists, physiologists, and endocrinologists (rev. in 1-3). It is currently known that branches of the parasympathetic and sympathetic as well as the sensory nervous system innervate the islets with nerve terminals ending closely to the islet endocrine cells. It is also known that these nerves affect islet hormone secretion. The classic neurotransmitters in the islet autonomic nerves are acetylcholine and norepinephrine. During the last decades, the contribution to neural regulation of islet function also by neuropeptides has been established (rev. in 4). Several neuropeptides are localized to islet nerve terminals, are released from the pancreatic nerves upon nerve stimulation, and influence islet hormone secretion. It is also known that the islet innervation is altered in animal models of type 2 diabetes (5). The autonomic nervous system has also been suggested to be involved in the regulation of islet mass (6). The present review highlights the role of neuropeptides in islet function. PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEMAnatomy and effects. The parasympathetic nerves innervating the pancreatic islets emanate from the pancreatic ganglia, which are innervated by preganglionic parasympathetic nerves originating in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. Activ...
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