Output, Error, Equivocation, and Recalled Information in Auditory, Visual, and Audiovisual Information Processing with Constraint and Noise

Abstract

Past controversies over the relative effectiveness of auditory, visual, and audiovisual channels are seen as the results of nondifferentiation of error and equivocation. Seventh grade students were used as Ss in an experiment consisting of noise and no noise conditions with constrained and nonconstrained communication in A, V, and AV treatments. Data were examined in terms of output, error, equivocation, and recalled (shared) information based upon information theory.The superiority of the AV treatment was substantiated in all respects of information processing, making less error and equivocation, but recalling more information correctly as compared with the A or V channel. Comparisons between A and V unequivocally established the fact that V made less error but more equivocation, whereas A processed more output information and also made more error; however, there was no significant difference between them in recalled information.The dependence of A upon constraint was found to be far greater than that of AV whose dependence in turn was greater than that of V. Noise was found to affect A most, V the next most, and AV the least. With between-channel redundancy AV seemed to be capable of reducing the effect of noise.Countless studies on the relative effectiveness of channels and modalities have appeared since the turn of this century. Ever since TV became a teaching instrument, the battle of channel superiority-the superiority of one channel over the other, or that of a single channel over dual and multiple channels, or viceversa-has been even more fiercely fought. No generally acceptable theory concerning the difference of media has been offered, in spite of the fact that experiments and studies seeking to resolve theoretical problems concerning the different efficacies of various The writer, who received his Ph.D. in Mass Communications from the University of Wisconsin in 1967, is currently engaged in basic television research with Television Bureau of Advertising Inc., New York. He was a reporter and columnist in Hong Kong before coming to the United States for further education.

Discrete, Sequential, and Follow-Up Use of Information and Communication Technology by Experienced ICT Users

“…Dahle claimed that redundancy is largely responsible for how people perceive communication efficiency and dependability. Hsia (1968) confirmed these findings in his experimental study by demonstrating that the accuracy of message transmission was increased by using auditory plus visual information. Hsia used information theory to justify why he disagreed with Broadbent's (1958) claim that receiving information via multiple channels would overload people's processing abilities and lower comprehension and recall.…”

Organizational Communication in Emergencies: Using Multiple Channels and Sources to Combat Noise and Capture Attention

“…Redundancy—repeating the same information—is a core part of information theory (Shannon & Weaver, ) and has been invoked by scholars from many fields to understand noise, comprehension, overload, and learning (e.g., Broadbent, ; Dahle, ; Hsia, , ; Paivio, ). While communication scholars claim the centrality of information theory to our field, we are often foggy as to its details (Craig, ).…”

The Successive Use of Information and Communication Technologies at Work

“…Communication scholars have relied on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) information theory (see Dahle’s 1954 study) and Marschak’s (1968) cost minimization perspective (see Hsia’s 1968 study as well as Reinsch & Beswick’s 1990 findings) to show that an oral plus a written channel improves recall. The similarity between these two perspectives is their view that redundancy is good because it fills in the gaps and reduces errors.…”