“…The OSP problem has garnered attention across various fields for an extended period, as rapid data sampling, analysis, and decision-making for complex systems can be archived with limited measurements. There are tremendous OSP methods developed for structural health monitoring systems [19][20][21], intelligent manufacturing systems [22], fluid control systems [23,24], wireless sensor networks [25], building monitoring systems [26], pipeline systems [27], hydraulic control systems [28], environmental monitoring systems, thermal systems [29], Internet of Things (IoT) systems [30], condition monitoring systems [31,32], etc., and most of these methods are based on high-dimensional data decomposition methods or heuristic optimization algorithms. The data-driven decomposition methods have elegant mathematical expressions, but they are mostly applicable to component-level OSP problems.…”