Opening Pandora's bait box: a potent vector for biological invasions of live marine species

Abstract

Aim For over 80 years, the Maine baitworm trade has shipped live polychaete worms and packing algae 'wormweed' to distributors world-wide, while also consistently transferring a wide diversity and abundance of hitchhiking organisms of all life stages to numerous recipient communities. Here, we investigate this potent, yet underestimated, invasion vector using an important recipient region (the Mid-Atlantic) to examine the stepwise species transfer and survival along four stages of the vector.Location Maine and Mid-Atlantic region (New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina), USA.Methods We quantified taxonomic identities and abundances of organisms associated with packing algae at four stages along the vector pathway during summer 2011: (1) Maine source habitats; (2) bait boxes from Maine distributors; (3) bait boxes from distributors in five Mid-Atlantic States; and (4) bait bags from retailers in five Mid-Atlantic States. We also examined functional diversity based on significant physical and life history characteristics and assessed genetic diversity for two common hitchhiking snail species. Results We identified 17,798 live macro-organisms across 58 taxa, including marine macro-invertebrates, macroalgae, vascular plants and semi-terrestrial or aquatic invertebrates, present in bait boxes and bags. In all measures of diversity and abundance, we observed decreases of live marine macro-invertebrates across sequential stages of the vector from source to recipient regions. Significant differences in community composition were also observed between stages and were driven by isopods (taxonomic diversity) and isopods, amphipods and some gastropods (functional diversity).Main conclusions The lack of management in the face of the sheer magnitude and diversity of organisms that are transported via the live marine bait trade underscores how this is an underappreciated vector that could be a considerable source of successful invasions globally.

A new species of the Marphysa sanguinea complex from French waters (Bay of Biscay, NE Atlantic) (Annelida, Eunicidae)

“…Recent studies have highlighted the possibility of these practises facilitating the introduction of invasive species (Olive 1994). Bait worm packaging are considered to be an important vector for transporting non-native algae, microorganisms and other invertebrates (Haska et al 2012; Fowler et al 2016). For example, a total of 114 taxa have been identified by Fowler et al (2016) in baitworm shipments from Maine.…”

“…Bait worm packaging are considered to be an important vector for transporting non-native algae, microorganisms and other invertebrates (Haska et al 2012; Fowler et al 2016). For example, a total of 114 taxa have been identified by Fowler et al (2016) in baitworm shipments from Maine. Moreover, use of live baits contributes to the dispersal of worms in new marine ecosystems.…”

Risk screening of non-native macroinvertebrates in the major rivers and associated basins of Belarus using the Aquatic Species Invasiveness Screening Kit

“…Although the probabilities of introduction and success are typically low, given the number of baitboxes shipped nationally and internationally, the potential introduction events can be quite large. Fowler et al (2016) estimated that over 1.2 billion macro-invertebrates have been transferred from Maine in bloodworm baitboxes over the past 67 years. For example, the packing alga itself, the European green crab, Carcinus maenas, and the rough periwinkle, Littorina saxatilis, are each thought to have been introduced to the West Coast of the United States (US) via this vector (Cohen and Carlton 1995;Carlton and Cohen 1998;Miller et al 2004).…”

Spectral characterization of Didymosphenia geminata under laboratory conditions: bases for a monitoring and early warning system in river systems of south central Chile

“…Although the probabilities of introduction and success are typically low, given the number of baitboxes shipped nationally and internationally, the potential introduction events can be quite large. Fowler et al (2016) estimated that over 1.2 billion macro-invertebrates have been transferred from Maine in bloodworm baitboxes over the past 67 years. For example, the packing alga itself, the European green crab, Carcinus maenas, and the rough periwinkle, Littorina saxatilis, are each thought to have been introduced to the West Coast of the United States (US) via this vector (Cohen and Carlton 1995;Carlton and Cohen 1998;Miller et al 2004).…”