Ontogenetic scaling of locomotor kinetics and kinematics of the ostrich (<i>Struthio camelus</i>)

Smith, Nicola C.; Jespers, Karin J. M.; Wilson, Alan M.

doi:10.1242/jeb.020271

Cited by 41 publications

(74 citation statements)

References 45 publications

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“…Finally, Rubenson and colleagues (2004) and Abourachid and Renous (2000) used sub-adult ostriches. The normalized stride length and frequency characteristics have been found to change through ontogeny (Smith et al, 2010). Nonetheless, the overall trends of stride length and frequency with speed are remarkably consistent across studies, despite differences in data collection.…”

Section: Dynamics Of Walking and Running In Ostrichesmentioning

confidence: 85%

“…Consequently, the ostrich has served as an important animal model for understanding bipedal gait dynamics and energetics (Fedak and Seeherman, 1979;Alexander et al, 1979;Abourachid and Renous, 2000;Rubenson et al, 2004;Smith et al, 2010;Watson et al, 2011;Smith and Wilson, 2013), and as an inspiration for the design of legged robots (Andrada et al, 2012;Cotton et al, 2012). Here, we measured self-selected gait dynamics of ostriches roaming in a 165×120 m grassy paddock over a wide range of speeds using GPS-IMU sensors, and compared freely selected gait-speed distributions with those reported previously from standard biomechanics laboratory measures.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Preferred gait and walk–run transition speeds in ostriches measured using GPS-IMU sensors

Daley

Channon

Nolan

et al. 2016

Journal of Experimental Biology

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The ostrich (Struthio camelus) is widely appreciated as a fast and agile bipedal athlete, and is a useful comparative bipedal model for human locomotion. Here, we used GPS-IMU sensors to measure naturally selected gait dynamics of ostriches roaming freely over a wide range of speeds in an open field and developed a quantitative method for distinguishing walking and running using accelerometry. We compared freely selected gait-speed distributions with previous laboratory measures of gait dynamics and energetics. We also measured the walk-run and run-walk transition speeds and compared them with those reported for humans. We found that ostriches prefer to walk remarkably slowly, with a narrow walking speed distribution consistent with minimizing cost of transport (CoT) according to a rigid-legged walking model. The dimensionless speeds of the walk-run and run-walk transitions are slower than those observed in humans. Unlike humans, ostriches transition to a run well below the mechanical limit necessitating an aerial phase, as predicted by a compass-gait walking model. When running, ostriches use a broad speed distribution, consistent with previous observations that ostriches are relatively economical runners and have a flat curve for CoT against speed. In contrast, horses exhibit U-shaped curves for CoT against speed, with a narrow speed range within each gait for minimizing CoT. Overall, the gait dynamics of ostriches moving freely over natural terrain are consistent with previous labbased measures of locomotion. Nonetheless, ostriches, like humans, exhibit a gait-transition hysteresis that is not explained by steady-state locomotor dynamics and energetics. Further study is required to understand the dynamics of gait transitions.

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Section: Dynamics Of Walking and Running In Ostrichesmentioning

confidence: 85%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Preferred gait and walk–run transition speeds in ostriches measured using GPS-IMU sensors

Daley

Channon

Nolan

et al. 2016

Journal of Experimental Biology

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“…So far, available data on large Struthioniformes (Abourachid and Renous, 2000;Rubenson et al, 2007;Goetz et al, 2008;Schaller et al, 2009;Smith et al, 2010) suggest that across the entire class Aves, it is mainly body size, leading to a differing degree of crouch and elongation of relative distal limb length, that constrains the kinematic pattern (Gatesy and Pollard, 2011) (A.S., B. M. Kilbourne and M.S.F., unpublished). Looking at small species exhibiting rather similar intralimb proportions, a consistent pattern of intralimb coordination can be observed, supporting the initial hypothesis.…”

Section: Conserved Pattern Of Intralimb Coordination In Fore-aft Motimentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Currently, knowledge of intralimb coordination of avian terrestrial locomotion is restricted to guinea fowl (Gatesy, 1999a;Gatesy, 1999b), chicken (Jacobson and Hollyday, 1982;Manion, 1984;Muir et al, 1996), quail (Reilly, 2000;Abourachid et al, 2011), pigeon (Cracraft, 1971), magpie (Verstappen et al, 2000) and several Struthioniformes (e.g. Abourachid and Renous, 2000;Jindrich et al, 2007;Rubenson et al, 2007;Smith et al, 2010). Although Gatesy (Gatesy, 1999a) demonstrated the necessity of applying X-ray technology for an accurate and reproducible analysis of the kinematics of avian terrestrial locomotion, very few studies have since used this method in analyses of avian bipedalism (Abourachid et al, 2011;Provini et al, 2012).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Comparative intralimb coordination in avian bipedal locomotion

Stoessel

Fischer

2012

Journal of Experimental Biology

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SUMMARYAnalyses of how intralimb coordination during locomotion varies within and across different taxa are necessary for understanding the morphological and neurological basis for locomotion in general. Previous findings suggest that intralimb proportions are the major source of kinematic variation that governs intralimb coordination across taxa. Also, independence of kinematics from habitat preference and phylogenetic position has been suggested for mammals. This leads to the hypothesis that among equally sized bird species exhibiting equal limb proportions, similar kinematics can be observed. To test this hypothesis, the bipedal locomotion of two distantly related ground-dwelling bird species (Eudromia elegans and Coturnix coturnix) and of a less terrestrial species (Corvus monedula) was investigated by means of a biplanar high-speed X-ray videographic analysis. Birds exhibited similar intralimb proportions and were filmed over a broad range of speed while moving on a treadmill. Joint and limb element angles, as well as pelvic rotations, were quantified. Regarding fore-aft motions of the limb joints and elements, a congruent pattern of intralimb coordination was observed among all experimental species. The sample of species suggests that this is largely independent of their habitat preference and systematic position and seems to be related to demands for coping with an irregular terrain with a minimum of necessary control. Hence, the initial hypothesis was confirmed. However, this congruence is not found when looking at medio-lateral limb motions and pelvic rotations, showing distinct differences between grounddwellers (e.g. largely restricted to a parasagittal plane) and C. monedula (e.g. increased mobility of the hip joint). Supplementary material available online at

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“…All the other birds 99 have three or four toes, while the largest avian biped ostrich has only two toes, the main 3rd 100 toe and the lateral 4th toe. Another unique adaptation at the distal part of the hindlimb is the 101 supra-jointed toe posture with the metatarsophalangeal joint and proximal phalanx of both 102 toes being permanently elevated above the ground surface (Schaller, et al, 2011;Deeming, 103 2003 (Schaller et al, 2007(Schaller et al, , 2011 Although a large number of studies have been conducted to investigate the ostrich hindlimb 112 kinematics during locomotion (Haughton, 1865;Alexander et al, 1979;Alexander, 1985;113 Gatesy and Biewener, 1991;Abourachid and Renous, 2000;Jindrich et al, 2007;Rubenson 114 et al, 2004Rubenson 114 et al, , 2007Rubenson 114 et al, , 2010Watson et al, 2011;Smith et al, 2006Smith et al, , 2007Smith et al, , 2010Smith et al, , 2013Schaller et 115 al., 2009Schaller et 115 al., , 2011Birn-Jeffery et al, 2014;Hutchinson et al, 2015), those kinematic analyses 116 were mainly focused on hip, knee and ankle joints. So far, little is known about the relative 117 motions of the 3rd and 4th toes intrinsic joints and the metatarsophalangeal joint during 118 ostrich foot locomotion.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Supplemental Information 1: Statistical Data

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The ostrich is a highly cursorial bipedal land animal with a permanently elevated metatarsophalangeal joint supported by only two toes. Although locomotor kinematics in walking and running ostriches have been examined, these studies have been largely limited to above the metatarsophalangeal joint. In this study, kinematic data of all major toe joints were collected from walking to running during stance period in a semi-natural setup with selected cooperative ostriches. Statistical analyses were conducted to investigate the effect of locomotor gait on toe joint kinematics. The MTP3 and MTP4 joints exhibit the largest range of motion whereas the first phalangeal joint of the 4th toe shows the largest motion variability. The interphalangeal joints of the 3rd and 4th toes present very similar motion patterns over stance phases of walking and running. However, the motion patterns of the MTP3 and MTP4 joints and the vertical displacement of the metatarsophalangeal joint are significantly different during running from walking. This is probably because of the biomechanical requirements for the inverted pendulum gait at low speeds and also the bouncing gait at high speeds. Interestingly, the motions of the MTP3 and MTP4 joints are highly synchronised from slow to fast locomotion. This strongly suggests that the 3rd and 4th toes really work as an integrated system with the 3rd toe as the main load bearing element whilst the 4th toe as the complementary load sharing element with a primary role to ensure the lateral stability of the permanently elevated metatarsophalangeal joint. The ostrich is highly cursorial bipedal land animal with a permanently elevated

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Ontogenetic scaling of locomotor kinetics and kinematics of the ostrich (Struthio camelus)

Cited by 41 publications

References 45 publications

Preferred gait and walk–run transition speeds in ostriches measured using GPS-IMU sensors

Preferred gait and walk–run transition speeds in ostriches measured using GPS-IMU sensors

Comparative intralimb coordination in avian bipedal locomotion

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