Only two sex forms but multiple gender variants: How to explain?

Abstract

Are sex and gender interchangeable terms? In classical biology, both are sometimes but not always used on an equal basis for some groups of animals. However, for our own species the Homo sapiens, they are not. A major question is why are there only two types of gametes (sperm- and egg cells), two types of sex steroids, (androgens and estrogens in vertebrates, and two types of ecdysteroids in insects), while the reproduction-related behaviour of the gamete producers displays a much greater variability than just two prominent forms, namely heterosexual males and heterosexual females? It indicates that in addition to a few sex-determining genes ( = the first pillar), other factors play a role. A second possible pillar is the still poorly understood cognitive memory system in which electrical phenomena and its association with the plasma membrane membrane-cytoskeletal complex of cells play a major role (learning, imitation and imprinting). This paper advances a third pillar, that hitherto has been almost completely ignored, namely the cellular Ca2+-homeostasis system, more specifically its sex-specific differences. Differential male-female genetics- and hormone-based Ca2+-homeostasis with effects on gender-related processes has been named Calcigender before. It will be argued that it follows from the principles of Ca2+- physiology and homeostasis that all individuals of a sexually reproducing animal population have a personalized gender behaviour. Thus, subdividing gender-behaviours in hetero-, homo-, bi-, trans- etc. which all result from a differential use of the very same basic physiological principles, is too primitive a system that may yield false sociological interpretations.

Nature, Calcigender, Nurture: Sex-dependent differential Ca2+ homeostasis as the undervalued third pillar

“…[21] This variability not only yields the outcome that all cells of the body differ in their Ca 2+ homeostasis system, but that such difference also holds at the organismal level. This is the essence of the Calcigender concept as first formulated by De Loof [22]: males and females, and by extrapolation all gender forms differ in their Ca 2+ -homeostasis which means that there probably are as many gender forms with their specific behavior and physiology as there are sexually reproducing individuals in a species [1].…”

“…However, from the physiological point of view, being a male or a female indicates a (disease) state controlled by toxic Ca 2+ -levels. [1,3,7] One should also keep in mind that probably both females and males of most animal species do not know that having heterosexual sex is causal to the production of a progeny. For them, a progeny is an unexpected free bonus when having engaged in hormone-driven copulation behavior.…”

“…This is an important issue in the discussion about "Sex versus Gender". [1] Reminder of a few well-established key genetic and physiological principles…”

“…A second problem is why there are only two genetic sexes, but several gender forms. [1] Another problem is our rudimentary knowledge about the functioning of our cognitive memory system at the molecular level, particularly about the role of self-generated electricity, electrical signaling, and the plasma-membrane-cytoskeletal complex in this process [2]. It is well documented that sex-steroids play a major role in reproduction-related behavior.…”

“…Why was the role of differential Ca 2+ -homeostasis on genderlinked behavior not considered? [1] To date's sexual reproductive physiology of animals has ancient roots in evolutionary history Researchers in the biomedical sciences versus in the humanities often have a different approach towards the Nature-Nurture debate. In particular, the retrograde timescale differs.…”