Online Hate Speech: A Survey on Personal Experiences and Exposure Among Adult New Zealanders

Measuring Trends in Online Hate Speech Victimisation and Exposure, and Attitudes in New Zealand

“…gay, lesbian, bisexual). Overall, these results are consistent with our 2018 study (Pacheco & Melhuish, 2018b) and support the argument that online hate speech is more likely to be directed towards minorities and/or vulnerable groups.…”

“…Overall, Netsafe's study found that 11% of respondents were personally targeted with online hate with higher rates among minority ethnic groups, younger adults, males, people with disabilities, and non-heterosexual respondents. Similarly, the study found that religion followed by political views and appearance were the most common perceived reasons for hate speech victimisation (see Pacheco & Melhuish, 2018b). In regard to exposure, about 3 in 10 of adult New Zealanders indicated having seen hateful speech that targeted someone else (Pacheco & Melhuish, 2018b).…”

“…In regard to exposure, about 3 in 10 of adult New Zealanders indicated having seen hateful speech that targeted someone else (Pacheco & Melhuish, 2018b). Although the study did not collect data based on people's religious affiliation, it provides robust measures and personal accounts of emotional impact, concluding that online hate speech in New Zealand is more likely to target minorities (Pacheco & Melhuish, 2018b).…”

“…On the other hand, international survey-based research on online hate speech has centred on sampling teenagers and young adults in the context of exposure to hateful content (Pacheco & Melhuish, 2018b). In the same line of inquiry, a recent Netsafe study on the experiences of online risks and perceived harm among New Zealand children aged 13-17 provides useful evidence on the matter.…”

“…We also acknowledge that defining online hate speech is challenging. It is not only an evolving concept (Pacheco & Melhuish, 2018b) but the lack of methodological consensus on how to measure it limits its full understanding and the responses to address it promptly and effectively. We are confident that our approach to measuring online hate speech, which captures prior research, will guide future research on the topic.…”