On the range of cognitive plasticity in old age as a function of experience: 15 years of intervention research

Abstract

Fifteen years of cognitive research conducted by the first author and his colleagues are summarized. This research has shown that many older adults have the reserve capacity to improve their performance on tests of intelligence and other indicators of cognitive efficacy. Improvement results both from self-guided learning and trainer-guided training in relevant cognitive skills. At the same time, there is increasing evidence that there are aging-related limits in the level of training-based performance attainable through practice and other strategies of cognitive engineering. Near maximum limits of capacity, aging loss seems less subject to reversibility. The nature of cognitive aging, thus, involves a Janus-like character: continued plasticity accompanied by increasing limits to plasticity. As programs for the redesigning of the aging process are considered, plasticity and limits to plasticity deserve equal attention in order to reflect the possible strengths and weaknesses of older persons. A model derived from such a dual perspective is presented in the form of selective optimization with compensation.The purpose of this article is to summarize a research program on cognitive plasticity in old age conducted over the last fifteen years by the first author in collaboration with several colleagues. In the first part, the empirical body of data is described as it evolved since the original studies were initiated in the early 1970s. This line of research had as its primary focus the demonstration of plasticity (modifiability). In the second part, recent and ongoing research is summarized. In that line of research the focus has moved from the mere demonstration of plasticity (modifiability) in old age to the study of the limiting conditions (constraints) on plasticity.

Further testing of limits of cognitive plasticity: Negative age differences in a mnemonic skill are robust.

“…It involves a component of what in psychological intelligence theory is called fluid intelligence or the mechanical aspects of cognitive functioning. As argued by others and by us (e.g., Baltes & Smith, 1990;Denney, 1990;Perlmutter, 1990), there are other facets of the mind (e.g., knowledge-based domains of functioning such as language comprehension, professional expertise, or wisdom) in which old adults may be equivalent to or better than young adults, even in situations that require maximum use of reserve capacity. Therefore, it is important not to generalize this study's outcome to all domains of the mind.…”

On the validity and generality of transfer effects in cognitive training research

“…This question is related to the old issue of separating task-specific from task-general effects of training (e.g. Baltes & Lindenberger, 1988;Lövdén et al, 2010). One way to answer this question is to try to determine and evaluate the distance of transfer tasks (Barnett & Ceci, 2002;Noack et al, 2009;Zelinski, 2009;cf.…”

“…Jensen (1998) noted, for example, that that the intelligence factor,g, predicts only around 65% of the variance in its best predictor, matrix reasoning, leaving another 35% that must be governed by other factors, which could alternatively account for observed transfer (see also Shipstead et al, 2012). Thus, if the aim is to make claims about some latent aspect (i.e., a cognitive process or ability) of the transfer task, and if the ultimate "…goal is not to train for the specific task but to impact the construct underlying the task" (McArdle & Prindle, 2008, p. 703; see also Baltes et al, 1986;Baltes & Lindenberger, 1988), then analyses must be…”

Memory plasticity across the life span: Uncovering children's latent potential.

“…Baltes & Lindenberger, 1988;Kramer & Willis, 2003;Lindenberger, Kliegl, & Baltes, 1992). Regarding memory plasticity, the general finding is that older adults' plasticity is much more limited than that of younger adults but that cognitively healthy older adults, at least up to their 80s, continue to be able to improve their memory performance through acquiring and using mnemonic techniques.…”