On the Manufacture of Flint Glass.

Pellatt, A

doi:10.1680/imotp.1840.24893

Cited by 1 publication

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“…Prior to 1885, thermometers were manufactured from glasses typified by "Thuringian" glass (Table 2), or from lead (PbO, litharge) glass, each of which contained significant fractions of both sodium and potassium ions. Nineteenth-century lead-glass thermometers exhibited an increased rate of bulb contraction [125,[137][138][139][140]. Following the discovery of bulb-contraction, the most careful manufactories scored and calibrated their LiG thermometers several months after being filled and sealed [112].…”

Section: Joule-driftmentioning

confidence: 99%

LiG Metrology, Correlated Error, and the Integrity of the Global Surface Air-Temperature Record

Frank

2023

Sensors

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The published 95% uncertainty of the global surface air-temperature anomaly (GSATA) record through 1980 is impossibly less than the 2σ = ±0.25 °C lower limit of laboratory resolution of 1 °C/division liquid-in-glass (LiG) thermometers. The ~0.7 °C/century Joule-drift of lead- and soft-glass thermometer bulbs renders unreliable the entire historical air-temperature record through the 19th century. A circa 1900 Baudin meteorological spirit thermometer bulb exhibited intense Pb X-ray emission lines (10.55, 12.66, and 14.76 keV). Uncorrected LiG thermometer non-linearity leaves 1σ = ±0.27 °C uncertainty in land-surface air temperatures prior to 1981. The 2σ = ±0.43 °C from LiG resolution and non-linearity obscures most of the 20th century GSATA trend. Systematic sensor-measurement errors are highly pair-wise correlated, possibly across hundreds of km. Non-normal distributions of bucket and engine-intake difference SSTs disconfirm the assumption of random measurement error. Semivariogram analysis of ship SST measurements yields half the error difference mean, ±½Δε1,2, not the error mean. Transfer-function adjustment following a change of land station air-temperature sensor eliminates measurement independence and forward-propagates the antecedent uncertainty. LiG resolution limits, non-linearity, and sensor field calibrations yield GSATA mean ±2σ RMS uncertainties of, 1900–1945, ±1.7 °C; 1946–1980, ±2.1 °C; 1981–2004, ±2.0 °C; and 2005–2010, ±1.6 °C. Finally, the 20th century (1900–1999) GSATA, 0.74 ± 1.94 °C, does not convey any information about rate or magnitude of temperature change.

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Section: Joule-driftmentioning

confidence: 99%

LiG Metrology, Correlated Error, and the Integrity of the Global Surface Air-Temperature Record

Frank

2023

Sensors

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On the Manufacture of Flint Glass.

Cited by 1 publication

References 0 publications

LiG Metrology, Correlated Error, and the Integrity of the Global Surface Air-Temperature Record

LiG Metrology, Correlated Error, and the Integrity of the Global Surface Air-Temperature Record

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