Old and Recent Advances in Life Cycle, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment of Malaria Including Perspectives in Ethiopia

Abstract

Malaria, caused by apicomplexan parasite, is an old disease and continues to be a major public health threat in many countries. This article aims to present different aspects of malaria including causes, pathogenesis, prevention, and treatment in an articulate and comprehensive manner. Six Plasmodium species are recognized as the etiology of human malaria, of which Plasmodium falciparum is popular in East and Southern Africa. Malaria is transmitted mainly through Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus, the two most effective malaria vectors in the world. Half of the world’s population is at risk for malaria infection. Globally, the morbidity and mortality rates of malaria have become decreased even though few reports in Ethiopia showed high prevalence of malaria. The malaria parasite has a complex life cycle that takes place both inside the mosquito and human beings. Generally, diagnosis of malaria is classified into clinical and parasitological diagnoses. Lack of clear understanding on the overall biology of Plasmodium has created a challenge in an effort to develop new drugs, vaccines, and preventive methods against malaria. However, three types of vaccines and a lot of novel compounds are under perclinical and clinical studies that are triggered by the occurrence of resistance among commonly used drugs and insecticides. Antiadhesion adjunctive therapies are also under investigation in the laboratory. In addition to previously known targets for diagnostic tool, vaccine and drug discovery scientists from all corner of the world are in search of new targets and chemical entities.

Malaria: Introductory Concepts, Resistance Issues and Current Medicines

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“…PfeEF2 is responsible for catalyzing the translocation of mRNA and tRNA. The overall efficacy of drugs that target this elongation factor may be increased due to the expression of PfeEF2 in multiple stages of the Plasmodium life cycle [77,114]. DDD107498 has shown excellent activity against a number of drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium species, and exhibited superior potency than artesunate against falciparum and vivax in ex vivo assays.…”

“…The way forward intended to design bioreversible alkoxycarbonate ester pro-drugs has currently been effectively explored to overcome the physicochemical problems of ELQ-300 and attain bloodstream levels adequate for safety and toxicological studies, as well as getting single dose cures [79]. It is also possible to list Genz-668764, ML238, AC T-213615, SAR121 and TDR84420 within the new chemical entity group [77,103].…”

Civil Responsibility in the Medical Industry for Artificial Intelligence Applications: the Legal Rules of AI Responsibility

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Photonic crystal-based biosensor for detection of human red blood cells parasitized by plasmodium falciparum

“…Malaria is a dangerous human disease that is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in children as well as adults in endemic countries. About 44% of the world's population is at risk for the disease (Nureye and Assefa 2020). Its rapid and efficient diagnosis is essential to prevent complications and mortality, as well as to treat and manage the disease (Bilal et al 2015).…”