Ocean Sprawl: Challenges and Opportunities for Biodiversity Management In A Changing World

Abstract

with the proliferation of coastal defences. This is an adaptation option (sensu IPCC 2014) that has been adopted worldwide to protect the growing coastal population and its property, transport infrastructure, industry and commerce, as well as valuable amenity and recreational areas (for review, see chapters in Burcharth et al. 2007, Zanuttigh et al. 2014). In this review, we discuss current evidence and thinking on biodiversity and ecosystem responses to global drivers of change, with a focus on recent rapid climate change and its interaction with regional and local impacts due to 'ocean sprawl'-the proliferation of artificial structures in the sea. We consider how efforts to combat climate change, such as mitigation via offshore renewables ('green' energies to reduce CO 2 emissions), and adaptation via sea defences are leading to a proliferation of artificial structures, resulting in changes in the proportion of hard versus soft coastal habitats, the distribution of species, assemblage composition, and community structure. We also discuss the role of coastal development, including ports and other transport infrastructure as well as offshore structures (e.g., oil and gas platforms), in altering coastal and marine ecosystem structure and functioning. Finally, we undertake a critical review of the current 'state of the art' in the emerging field of 'green engineering', which combines environmentally conscious attitudes, values, and principles with science, technology, and engineering practice, all directed towards improving local and global environmental quality. Our scope is the global coastline extending vertically to the uppermost extent of tidal influence, with particular emphasis on open coasts and offshore structures that have seen the most research. This is in contrast to the freshwater tidal reaches of estuaries, which have received little attention (but see Francis & Hoggart 2008, 2009, Hoggart et al. 2012). Many of the case studies and examples are drawn from temperate systems in developed countries, reflecting the experience of the authors and the distribution of published research. Two themes permeate our review: firstly, how ecosystem services are at risk from modification of the coast by artificial structures; secondly, the interaction between the provision of new 'hard' substratum as a societal adaptation response, resulting in altered habitat connectivity and changes in the distribution of species and composition of assemblages. We conclude by identifying current knowledge gaps and future research needs. Burgeoning coastal human populations The diversity of coastal habitats includes rocky shores, sandy and muddy beaches, barriers, spits and sand dunes, estuaries and lagoons, deltas, wetlands, and coral reefs. These individually and K27072_C004.indd 190 6/15/16 12:57 PM 191 OCEAN SPRAWL collectively provide a disproportionately greater number of ecosystem services (see Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [MEA] 2005 for a discussion of provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services) to human ...

Cool barnacles: Do common biogenic structures enhance or retard rates of deterioration of intertidal rocks and concrete?

“…There is a proliferation of hard artificial structures globally including seawalls, groynes, breakwaters, piers, harbours and ports (Airoldi and Beck, 2007;Firth et al 2016). The contribution of weathering to the progressive deterioration of construction materials is therefore of considerable interest to engineers and asset managers (CIRIA, 2007;Fookes et al, 1988;Özvan et al, 2011).…”

“…Given that engineered structures offer novel surfaces for colonisation (Connell, 2001;Glasby and Connell, 1999;Moschella et al, 2005), organic influences on deterioration (whether negative or positive) are an important component of performance and durability to consider. At the same time, a recognition that artificial structures are often poor ecological surrogates for the natural rocky shores they may replace (e.g., Bulleri and Chapman, 2004;Gacia et al, 2007;Firth et al 2013;Firth et al 2016) is fuelling considerable international effort to develop and test ways of encouraging their colonisation. This includes structural design interventions and retrofit solutions aimed at facilitating settlement and recruitment of benthic species, to support biodiversity and maintain ecological function (e.g., Chapman and Blockley, 2009;Evans et al, 2015;Firth et al, 2014, Firth et al 2016Sella and Perkol-Finkel, 2015).…”

Explaining Ocean Warming: Causes, scale, effects and consequences

“…The extent of intertidal hard substrata is increasing due to the proliferation of engineered coastal structures such as breakwaters, groynes and sea walls, built to protect people, property and infrastructure from rising and stormier seas (Thompson et al, 2002;Firth et al, 2013aFirth et al, , 2016a. These artificial rocky habitats are not, however, the same as natural rocky shores.…”

“…However, range contractions associated with lack of recruitment and low abundances toward poleward limits have also been observed (Box 3.7.1 Figure 2, Fenberg and Rivadeneira (2011)). Changes in abundances are often driven by altered survivorship and reproductive success under fluctuating ambient conditions, punctuated by advances and retreats caused by extreme events (Hutchins, 1947;Crisp, 1964;Southward, 1980;Southward et al, 1995;Wethey et al, 2011;Poloczanska et al, 2013;Smale and Wernberg, 2013;Spinuzzi et al, 2013;Bates et al, 2014;Firth et al, 2016a).…”

“…marine renewable energy infrastructure) and adaptational (e.g. sea defences) response to climate change, is likely to have an additive effect, aiding shifts in species distributions with climate warming (Firth et al, 2016a). It has been suggested that artificial structures may even provide opportunities for assisted migration of species at risk from climate change (Hoegh-Guldberg et al, 2008).…”