Occurrence of Ethyl Carbamate in Foods and Beverages: Review of the Formation Mechanisms, Advances in Analytical Methods, and Mitigation Strategies

Abstract

Ethyl carbamate (EC) is a process contaminant that can be formed as a byproduct during fermentation and processing of foods and beverages. Elevated EC levels are primarily associated with distilled spirits, but this compound has also been found at lower levels in foods and beverages, including breads, soy sauce, and wine. Evidence from animal studies suggests that EC is a probable human carcinogen. Consequently, several governmental institutions have established allowable limits for EC in the food supply. This review will discuss EC formation mechanisms, occurrence of EC in the food supply, and EC dietary exposure assessments. Analytical methods currently used to detect EC, and advances in experimental technologies, such as nanosensors and surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) will also be discussed. Finally, application of mitigation methods to maintain levels of EC under allowable limits will be covered, including distillation practices, enzymatic treatments, and genetic engineering of yeast. Ongoing research in this field is needed to refine mitigation strategies and develop methods to rapidly detect EC in the food supply.

Food-Borne Chemical Carcinogens and the Evidence for Human Cancer Risk

“…Occurrence : Ethyl Carbamate (EC) ( Figure 3 (4)), also referred to as urethane, is a fermentation product formed from the reaction of ethanol and carbamyl phosphate [ 374 , 375 ]. It is present as a natural trace constituent in various alcoholic beverages and in fermented food items, including cheese, bread, yogurt, soy sauce and fermented soybean products [ 374 , 376 , 377 , 378 , 379 ].…”

“…Occurrence : Ethyl Carbamate (EC) ( Figure 3 (4)), also referred to as urethane, is a fermentation product formed from the reaction of ethanol and carbamyl phosphate [ 374 , 375 ]. It is present as a natural trace constituent in various alcoholic beverages and in fermented food items, including cheese, bread, yogurt, soy sauce and fermented soybean products [ 374 , 376 , 377 , 378 , 379 ]. Mean concentrations of EC in some spirits, particularly in stone-fruit brandies, have been measured in a range of 4 to 122 µg/kg (or 0.1 to 1400 µg/L), while in foods lower concentrations, ranging from 0.2 to 16 µg/kg, were observed [ 374 , 376 , 377 , 378 ].…”

“…It is present as a natural trace constituent in various alcoholic beverages and in fermented food items, including cheese, bread, yogurt, soy sauce and fermented soybean products [ 374 , 376 , 377 , 378 , 379 ]. Mean concentrations of EC in some spirits, particularly in stone-fruit brandies, have been measured in a range of 4 to 122 µg/kg (or 0.1 to 1400 µg/L), while in foods lower concentrations, ranging from 0.2 to 16 µg/kg, were observed [ 374 , 376 , 377 , 378 ]. EC content in foods can also increase with thermal processing [ 380 ].…”

“…Human Exposure : Under normal dietary habits, excluding alcoholic beverages, the EDI was in the range of 0.01 to 0.02 µg/kg bw/day, or an average of 0.015 µg/kg bw/day [ 378 , 394 ]. Mean EC intake from diet and alcoholic beverages rages from 0.015 to 0.065 µg/kg bw/day [ 374 ].…”

Recent Developments in Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy and Its Application in Food Analysis: Alcoholic Beverages as an Example

“…Other toxic substances have also been found in alcoholic beverages, such as micro-and nanoplastics [ 167 ], SO 2 , ethyl carbamate (EC), and mycotoxins [ 168 ] (i.e., ochratoxin A (OTA) Aflatoxin B1) [ 169 ]. Ethyl carbamate (EC) [ 170 ] is a potentially toxic compound that is widely found in fermented foods and alcoholic beverages (wine, beer, spirits, and Chinese rice wine) and has carcinogenic potential. Some new technologies have been applied to detect EC in alcoholic products.…”