Occurrence of Antibiotics and Bacterial Resistance Genes in Wastewater Resistance Mechanisms and Antimicrobial Resistance Control Approaches

Abstract

Antimicrobial pharmaceuticals are classified as emergent micropollutants of concern, implying that even at low concentrations long-term exposure to the environment can have significant eco-toxicological effects. There is a lack of a standardized regulatory framework governing the permissible antibiotic content for monitoring environmental water quality standards. Therefore, indiscriminate discharge of antimicrobials at potentially active concentrations into urban wastewater treatment facilities is rampant. Antimicrobials may exert selective pressure on bacteria, leading to resistance development and eventual health consequences. The emergence of clinically Prime Archives in Immunology: 2 nd Edition 3 www.videleaf.com important multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in untreated hospital effluents and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) has been linked to the continuous exposure of bacteria to antimicrobials. The levels of environmental exposure to antibiotics and their correlation to the evolution and spread of resistant bacteria need to be elucidated to help in the formulation of mitigation measures. This review explores frequently detected antimicrobials in wastewater and gives a comprehensive coverage of bacterial resistance mechanisms to different antibiotic classes through the expression of a wide variety of antibiotic resistance genes either inherent and/or exchanged among bacteria or acquired from the reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in wastewater systems. To complement the removal of antibiotics and ARGs from WWTPs, upscaling the implementation of prospective interventions such as vaccines, phage therapy, and natural compounds as alternatives to widespread antibiotic use provides a multifaceted approach to minimize the spread of antimicrobial resistance.

Ribosome biogenesis in disease: new players and therapeutic targets

“…112,118,119 Although tetracycline is widely used in the clinic, drug resistance due to mutations within the ribosomal binding sites limits its clinical efficacy. 120 Due to the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria, the second (doxycycline) and third generation (glycylcyclines) of tetracyclines were produced. The glycylcycline antibiotic tigecycline has a similar mechanism of action as tetracycline but with higher affinity to the 30S ribosome, thus, blocking bacteria protein synthesis more efficiently.…”