Occurrence, ecological risk assessment and source apportionment of pharmaceuticals, steroid hormones and xenoestrogens in the Ghanaian aquatic environments

Occurrence, efficiency of treatment processes, source apportionment and human health risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and xenoestrogen compounds in tap water from some Ghanaian communities

“…The world's population boom over the last few decade coupled with increased industrialization and the extensive use of pharmaceuticals and related products have had a dire impact on the aquatic environment and, thus human health. Most pharmaceutical wastes from industrial, agricultural, hospital and domestic sources end up as pollutants in the aquatic environment [ 1 ]. Strikingly, pharmaceuticals are designed to have specific biological activities [ 2 , 3 ] and their unintended presence in aquatic environments even at trace levels may impact the health of organisms upon exposure [ 4 ].…”

“…Pharmaceuticals including steroids [ 5 ] and xenoestrogen compounds (PXCs) are classified as contaminants of emerging concern [ 6 ] and 21st-century global environmental concerns in recent years, due to their health effects on fauna and flora as well as the effect on human health [ 7 ]. Chemicals of this group are mostly endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), and notably among these are bisphenol A (BPA), 4- tert -octylphenol (4- t -OP), 4- para -nonylphenol (4-NP) and chlorinated phenols, as well as estrone (E1), 17-α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), 17-β-estradiol (E2), 17-α-estradiol (αE2), estriol (E3), and some phthalates [ 1 , [8] , [9] , [10] ].…”

“…The 177 EDCs found by the World Health Organization (WHO) internationally, were reported to be nervous and endocrine disruptors [ 1 , [11] , [12] , [13] , [14] , [15] ]. Although multifactorial, EDCs are linked strongly to several chronic health disorders including metabolic and thyroid disorders, reproductive cancer and disorders, as well as low IQ and neurodevelopmental disease [ 16 ].…”

“…The ubiquitous xenoestrogens, 4-NP, 4- t -OP and BPA are quite persistent and accumulate in the aquatic environment [ 1 , 35 ] and exhibit elevated toxicity which manifest in, cancerous tumours, reproductive and developmental disorders as well as obesity [ [35] , [36] , [37] , [38] , [39] ]. Sheikh [ 40 ] concluded that 4-NP and 4- t -OP may disrupt the proper functioning of the thyroid hormone.…”

“…The main urinary and faecal metabolites of pharmaceutical estrogens are estrone (E1), E2, EE2, and estriol (E3) [ 58 , 59 ], indicating for faecal contaminants in surface water. All the aforementioned EDCs have been extensively researched and reported for their presence in the aquatic environment [ 1 , [60] , [61] , [62] , [63] ] and groundwater [ 64 , 65 ]. On the contrary, only a few literature exist for the presence of these pharmaceuticals and xenoestrogens in drinking water [ [66] , [67] , [68] , [69] ].…”