Occurrence and Spatial and Temporal Variations of Disinfection By-Products in the Water and Air of Two Indoor Swimming Pools

Abstract

In order to improve disinfection by-product (DBP) exposure assessment, this study was designed to document both water and air levels of these chemical contaminants in two indoor swimming pools and to analyze their within-day and day-to-day variations in both of them. Intensive sampling was carried out during two one-week campaigns to measure trihalomethanes (THMs) and chloramines (CAMs) in water and air, and haloacetic acids (HAAs) in water several times daily. Water samples were systematically collected at three locations in each pool and air samples were collected at various heights around the pool and in other rooms (e.g., changing room) in the buildings. In addition, the ability of various models to predict air concentrations from water was tested using this database. No clear trends, but actual variations of contamination levels, appeared for both water and air according to the sampling locations and times. Likewise, the available models resulted in realistic but imprecise estimates of air contamination levels from water. This study supports the recommendation that suitable minimal air and water sampling should be carried out in swimming pools to assess exposure to DBPs.

Dynamic real-time monitoring of chloroform in an indoor swimming pool air using open-path Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

“…Moreover, some studies have indicated that exposure to THMs can have effects on reproductive health, such as intrauterine growth retardation, low birthweight, preterm birth, congenital malfunctions, stillbirth, and small for gestational age (SGA) neonates (Bove et al., ; Graves et al., ; Huang and Jaakkola, ; Levallois et al., ; Nieuwenhuijsen et al., ). Although most of the aforementioned studies on the effects of exposure to THMs on health analyzed household water use activities (e.g., consumption or showering) instead of analyzing the effects of swimming pool attendance (Catto et al., ), the potential health risks related to chemical exposures in swimming pools is still a public health concern.…”

“…Catto et al. () suggested that the contribution of each exposure route depends on the environmental concentrations and on the ratio between air and water levels.…”

“…Considering that chloroform is a highly volatile DBP that can escape into the gas‐phase in the swimming pool environment (Catto et al., ; Dyck et al., ), monitoring the level of chloroform in indoor swimming pool air is an important step to understand the level of exposure to DBPs in indoor swimming pool environments. Concentration of chloroform in indoor swimming pool air has been investigated extensively.…”

“…Catto et al. () took four air samples per day during a five consecutive days sampling program from two different indoor swimming pools in Quebec City, Canada. Their analyses indicated large within‐day variations of total THMs levels in air.…”

“…All the aforementioned studies used traditional analytical methods, such as collecting samples with adsorbent cartridges or containers (e.g., canisters) and subsequently transporting them to a laboratory for gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) analysis (Aggazzotti et al., ; Caro and Gallego, ), or measuring the chloroform concentration in ambient air with an electron capture detector (GC‐ECD) (Catto et al., ; Erdinger et al., ). However, these methods give only a time‐averaged response and do not provide information about temporal variations in concentration, which makes the wide variation in chloroform concentrations of indoor swimming pool air at different times difficult to explain.…”