Occurrence and Human Health Risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals and Hormones in Drinking Water Sources in the Metropolitan Area of Turin in Italy

Abstract

Pharmaceuticals and hormones (PhACs) enter the aquatic environment in multiple ways, posing potential adverse effects on non-target organisms. They have been widely detected in drinking water sources, challenging water companies to reassure good quality drinking water. The aim of this study was to evaluate the concentration of sixteen PhACs in both raw and treated drinking water sources in the Metropolitan Area of Turin—where Società Metropolitana Acque Torino (SMAT) is the company in charge of the water cycle management—and evaluate the potential human health risks associated to these compounds. Multivariate spatial statistical analysis techniques were used in order to characterize the areas at higher risk of pollution, taking into account the already existing SMAT sampling points’ network. Health risks were assessed considering average detected concentrations and provisional guideline values for individual compounds as well as their combined mixture. As reported in the just-issued Drinking Water Directive 2020/2184/UE, in order to establish priority substances, a risk assessment of contaminants present in raw drinking water sources is required for monitoring, identifying potential health risks and, if necessary, managing their removal. The results showed negligibly low human health risks in both raw water sources and treated water.

Occurrence, efficiency of treatment processes, source apportionment and human health risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and xenoestrogen compounds in tap water from some Ghanaian communities

“…Scientifically, it has been demonstrated that most conventional drinking water and waste water treatment plants are inefficient in treating PXCs [ 70 , 71 ] and usually the effluents of WWTP may end-up contaminating surface water which serve as source water for drinking water treatment plants. Thus, the occurrence of PXCs at significant levels in drinking water produced from conventional treatment plants [ 70 , 72 ].…”

“…Scientifically, it has been demonstrated that most conventional drinking water and waste water treatment plants are inefficient in treating PXCs [ 70 , 71 ] and usually the effluents of WWTP may end-up contaminating surface water which serve as source water for drinking water treatment plants. Thus, the occurrence of PXCs at significant levels in drinking water produced from conventional treatment plants [ 70 , 72 ]. Papagiannaki et al [ 70 ] and Chen et al [ 73 ] partly attributed the removal inefficiency to the high (>3) of most PXCs and recommended the use of advanced treatment technologies to complement the conventional processes.…”

“…Thus, the occurrence of PXCs at significant levels in drinking water produced from conventional treatment plants [ 70 , 72 ]. Papagiannaki et al [ 70 ] and Chen et al [ 73 ] partly attributed the removal inefficiency to the high (>3) of most PXCs and recommended the use of advanced treatment technologies to complement the conventional processes.…”

A Fully Automated Online SPE-LC-MS/MS Method for the Determination of 10 Pharmaceuticals in Wastewater Samples

“…For decades, several studies have evaluated the occurrence, effects, and risks of pharmaceutical compounds in the environment [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ], with most of those studies concluding that pharmaceuticals can compromise water quality. The release of pharmaceuticals in effluents from manufacturing plants, hospitals, private households, as well as the inappropriate disposal of leftover medications, can contaminate surface water, ground water, and, eventually, drinking water [ 5 ]. Pharmaceuticals are commonly found in aquatic compartments at very low concentrations ranging from ultratrace (ng L −1 ) to trace (µg L −1 ) levels, which are currently regarded as potential hazard for a variety of living organisms, including humans [ 6 , 7 ].…”

“…The most frequently used analytical techniques to determine trace levels of pharmaceuticals in water are high performance liquid chromatography coupled with ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV) [ 51 ] or mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) [ 5 ], as well as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) [ 52 ]. Due to the polar, non-volatile, and thermally unstable nature of pharmaceuticals, LC-MS and LC-MS/MS are frequently used to analyze them in aqueous samples [ 46 ].…”