Occurrence and human exposure assessment of organophosphate flame retardants in indoor dust from various microenvironments of the Rhine/Main region, Germany

Abstract

We analyzed organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) in 74 indoor dust samples collected from seven microenvironments (building material markets, private cars, daycare centers, private homes, floor/carpet stores, offices, and schools) in the Rhine/Main region of Germany. Ten of 11 target OPFRs were ubiquitously detected, some with more than 97% detection frequency, including tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl)phosphate (TCIPP), tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBOEP), triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), and tris(isobutyl) phosphate (TIBP). Total concentrations (∑OPFRs) ranged from 5.9 to 4800 μg/g, with TBOEP and TCIPP being the most abundant congeners. The ∑OPFRs in schools, private cars, offices, and daycare centers were significantly (P<.05) higher than in private homes. The ∑OPFRs for building material markets (19 μg/g) and floor/carpet stores (20 μg/g) showed no significant difference to the other microenvironments, likely because of forced ventilation. The profiles of OPFRs in dust samples from offices and private homes were highly similar, while profiles from the other five microenvironments were substantially different. Comparison of our results with previous studies indicates a significant global variation in OPFR concentrations and their profiles, reflecting distinct fire safety regulations in different countries and/or different sampling strategies. Dust ingestion constitutes the major exposure pathway to OPFRs for toddlers, while air inhalation is the major pathway for adults.

Brominated Flame Retardants and Organophosphate Esters in Preschool Dust and Children’s Hand Wipes

“…In our study, concentrations of the phthalates and BFRs that are being phased out were generally lower in comparison with previous studies of European preschools [124,126,129,130,131,132]. Furthermore, the levels of TDCIPP and TPHP were similar to previously reported levels in preschool, whereas the levels of TBOEP were somewhat lower [122,123,124,125,128,129].…”

“…Higher levels of TBOEP in preschools and schools compared to home environments have been reported in several studies [122,125,129,239]. It has been suggested that this is due to the use of floor polish in these public environments.…”

“…Over the last 15 years, BFRs and/or OPEs have been measured in European preschool dust in six individual studies [122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130]. Phthalates and non-phthalate plasticizers have been measured in European preschools in four [124,129,131,132] and one study [133], respectively.…”

Recent biomonitoring reports on phosphate ester flame retardants: a short review

“…The concentrations of PEFRs measured in indoor air were generally around tens to hundreds of ng/m 3 . Higher PEFR levels in indoor air or dust have occasionally been reported in occupational settings (e.g., recycling of electronics) or microenvironments (e.g., cars) (Wu et al, 2016;Ali et al, 2017;Zhou et al, 2017;Bello et al, 2018;Björnsdotter et al, 2018). Concentrations in outdoor air are approximately 1 to 4 orders of magnitude less than in indoor air (Wei et al, 2015).…”

“…Numerous other worker groups are expected to be more heavily exposed than the general population, especially when workers are in direct contact with large volumes of PEFRs as pure chemicals or at high concentrations in technical formulations at industrial sites and in manufacturing (e.g., at electronics dismantling facilities or electronic goods recycling areas). Measurements of PEFRs in air and dust in various occupational settings have also shown that the work environment may noticeably contribute to external exposure to PEFRs (Makinen et al, 2009;Ali et al, 2014;Wei et al, 2015;Zheng et al, 2017;Zhou et al, 2017;Muenhor et al, 2017;Bello et al, 2018;Ceballos et al, 2018;. Nevertheless, information on the nature and extent of occupational exposures to PEFRs, especially in terms of measurements of an individual's internal exposure, is still limited and warrants further investigations (characterization, quantification, and contribution to total PEFR burden).…”