Occurrence and Health Effects of Hexabromocyclododecane: An Updated Review

Abstract

Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) is a non-aromatic compound belonging to the bromine flame retardant family and is a known persistent organic pollutant (POP). This compound accumulates easily in the environment and has a high half-life in water. With a variety of uses, the HBCD is found in house dust, electronics, insulation, and construction. There are several isomers and the most studied are α-, β-, and γ-HBCD. Initially used as a substitute for other flame retardants, the polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), the discovery of its role as a POP made HBCD use and manufacturing restricted in Europe and other countries. The adverse effects on the environment and human health have been piling, either as a result from its accumulation or considering its power as an endocrine disruptor (ED). Furthermore, it has also been proven that it has detrimental effects on the neuronal system, endocrine system, cardiovascular system, liver, and the reproductive system. HBCD has also been linked to cytokine production, DNA damage, increased cell apoptosis, increased oxidative stress, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Therefore, this review aims to compile the most recent studies regarding the negative effects of this compound on the environment and human health, describing the possible mechanisms by which this compound acts and its possible toxic effects.

Impacts associated with the plastic polymers polycarbonate, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and polybutadiene across their life cycle: A review

“… HBCD is bio-accumulative [ 4 ], carcinogenic [ 4 ], and a persistent organic pollutant (POP) [ 117 ] listed in Annex A of the Stockholm Convention for phasing out and eventual elimination [ 72 ]. Environmental emissions [ 127 , 128 ] and occupational exposure (HBCD production and processing plants [ 127 ], PS manufacturing plants [ 129 ] and from thermal cutting of PS [ 130 ]) can lead to environmental and human health risks [ 127 , 131 ], including type 2 diabetes [ 132 ]. PBDEs are POPs with known health impacts [ 7 ], including impaired neurodevelopment [ 133 , 134 ], reduced birth weight [ 135 ] and increased risk of gestational diabetes [ 136 ].…”

Environmentally Relevant Concentrations of Triphenyl Phosphate (TPhP) Impact Development in Zebrafish

“…Triphenyl phosphate, also known as TPhP or TPP, is a common organophosphorus flame-retardant (OPFR) plastic additive. Its use became popular as a replacement for brominated flame retardants (BFRs), such as hexabromocyclododecane, which were banned due to their persistence, bioaccumulation, long range transport, and adverse effects [1][2][3][4]. Frequently included in electronics, car seats, and nail polish, TPhP has seen increased use in the past two decades due to its unusually short environmental degradation time relative to other OPFRs; it breaks down quickly in the environment, with a half-life of 3-12 days in water and sediment and 30-60 days in anoxic environments [5].…”