Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Feed and Food

Abstract

Dietary (co)-exposure to mycotoxins is associated with human and animal health concerns as well as economic losses. This study aims to give a data-based insight from the scientific literature on the (co-)occurrence of mycotoxins (i.e., parent and modified forms) in European core cereals, and to estimate potential patterns of co-exposure in humans and animals. Mycotoxins were mainly reported in wheat and maize showing the highest concentrations of fumonisins (FBs), deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxins (AFs), and zearalenone (ZEN). The maximum concentrations of FB1+FB2 were reported in maize both in feed and food and were above legal maximum levels (MLs). Similar results were observed in DON-food, whose max concentrations in wheat, barley, maize, and oat exceeded the MLs. Co-occurrence was reported in 54.9% of total records, meaning that they were co-contaminated with at least two mycotoxins. In the context of parental mycotoxins, co-occurrence of DON was frequently observed with FBs in maize and ZEN in wheat; DON + NIV and DON + T2/HT2 were frequently reported in barley and oat, respectively. Apart from the occurrence of ZEN and its phase I and phase II modified forms, only a limited number of quantified data were available for other modified forms; i.e., mainly the acetyl derivatives of DON. Data gaps are highlighted together with the need for monitoring studies on multiple mycotoxins to identify co-occurrence patterns for parent mycotoxins, metabolites, and their modified forms.

Fusarium Mycotoxins in Two Hulless Oat and Barley Cultivars Used for Food Purposes

“…In barley, fumonisins were found by Beccari et al [ 28 ] in 2% of samples, with concentrations at the levels of 156 μg kg −1 for FB1 and 65 μg kg −1 for FB2. In oats, fumonisins have only seldom been reported [ 29 ]. Our results are in a good agreement with these findings and confirmed that fumonisins do not pose a substantial risk for hulless barley and oats.…”

Aflatoxins Contamination of Human Food Commodities Collected from Jeddah Markets, Saudi Arabia

“…Although rice is not the high-risk commodity for AFs contamination, AFB 1 besides other mycotoxins have been found in rice from China, Egypt, India, Iran, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, United Kingdom, and the United States [42], [54]. Palumbo et al [55] found that AFs in rice of the highest mean concentrations of AFB1 n = 124; mean 3.1-3.3 μg/kg; max: 91.7 μg/kg. In our results, the total AFs were detected in some foods above the acceptable limits set by the European Union 4 ug/kg could be attributed to some suitable factors such as pH, nutrient composition, moisture content water activity, as well as external factors as temperature, relative humidity, soil properties, insects, and rodents attack [56], [57].…”

Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins in a Climate Change Scenario: Ecology, Genomics, Distribution, Prediction and Prevention of the Risk

“…Previous reports of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives [ 63 , 64 , 65 ] together with recent papers that analyzed data (500,000 analyses) from EFSA and large global surveys available in the literature and in international databases suggest mycotoxin prevalence of >25% as stated by the FAO in 1999 [ 66 , 67 ]. In addition, for some mycotoxins, this figure may greatly underestimate the occurrence above the detectable levels.…”