Observation of a highly conductive warm dense state of water with ultrafast pump–probe free-electron-laser measurements

Abstract

The electrical conductivity of water under extreme temperatures and densities plays a central role in modeling planetary magnetic fields. Experimental data are vital to test theories of high-energy-density water and assess the possible development and presence of extraterrestrial life. These states are also important in biology and chemistry studies when specimens in water are confined and excited using ultrafast optical or free-electron lasers (FELs). Here we utilize femtosecond optical lasers to measure the transient reflection and transmission of ultrathin water sheet samples uniformly heated by a 13.6 nm FEL approaching a highly conducting state at electron temperatures exceeding 20 000 K. The experiment probes the trajectory of water through the high-energy-density phase space and provides insights into changes in the index of refraction, charge carrier densities, and AC electrical conductivity at optical frequencies. At excitation energy densities exceeding 10 MJ/kg, the index of refraction falls to n = 0.7, and the thermally excited free-carrier density reaches ne = 5 × 1027 m−3, which is over an order of magnitude higher than that of the electron carriers produced by direct photoionization. Significant specular reflection is observed owing to critical electron density shielding of electromagnetic waves. The measured optical conductivity reaches 2 × 104 S/m, a value that is one to two orders of magnitude lower than those of simple metals in a liquid state. At electron temperatures below 15 000 K, the experimental results agree well with the theoretical calculations using density-functional theory/molecular-dynamics simulations. With increasing temperature, the electron density increases and the system approaches a Fermi distribution. In this regime, the conductivities agree better with predictions from the Ziman theory of liquid metals.

Laser-Driven Proton-Boron Fusions: Influences of the Boron State

“…Owing to advances in laser technology [3,4], it has becomes easier to obtain high-intensity ion beams [5,6] and explore warm-dense-matter physics [7,8] or high-energydensity physics [9,10], and the p 11 B fusion has also drawn renewed attention [11][12][13]. e proposal of using intense laser beams or intense laser-accelerated proton beams to impact a boron target so as to generate the p 11 B fusion is becoming increasingly attractive.…”