“…Moreover, electrons of energy > eU m , where e is the electron charge and U m is the maximum gap voltage, are detected downstream of the anode foil of vacuum diodes at subnanosecond and nanosecond voltage pulse rise times (Khudyakova et al, 1964). The spectra of electron beams are measured with magnetic spectrometers (Bugaev et al, 1974;Mangles et al, 2004;Li et al, 2006) and time-of-flight spectrometers (Gloeckler & Hsieh, 1979). The spectra of nano-and subnanosecond electron beams are also measured with the use of different methods (Bugaev et al, 1974;Afanasiev et al, 2005;Baksht et al, 2007), including the measurements of beam current attenuation in foils of different thickness (Baksht et al, 2010).…”