Objective metrics of comfort: Developing a driving style for highly automated vehicles

Bellem, Hanna; Schönenberg, Thorben; Krems, Josef F.; Schrauf, Michael

doi:10.1016/j.trf.2016.05.005

Cited by 146 publications

(98 citation statements)

References 16 publications

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“…Dang, Wang, Li, & Li, 2015;Li, Li, Rajamani, & Wang, 2011;Luo, Chen, Zhang, & Li, 2015;Moon, Moon, & Yi, 2009). Bellem, Schönenberg, Krems, and Schrauf (2016) suggested several maneuverspecific metrics such as acceleration, jerk, quickness, and headway distance to assess comfort of automated driving style. However, Elbanhawi, Simic, and Jazar (2015) argue in their review paper that several factors of human comfort are largely ignored in research for autonomous path planning systems [i.e.…”

Section: Literature Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Policy and society related implications of automated driving: A review of literature and directions for future research

Milakis

Arem

Wee

2017

Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems

714

383

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KEYWORDSautomated driving; first, second, and third order impacts; policy and societal implications; ripple effect ABSTRACTIn this paper, the potential effects of automated driving that are relevant to policy and society are explored, findings discussed in literature about those effects are reviewed and areas for future research are identified. The structure of our review is based on the ripple effect concept, which represents the implications of automated vehicles at three different stages: first-order (traffic, travel cost, and travel choices), second-order (vehicle ownership and sharing, location choices and land use, and transport infrastructure), and third-order (energy consumption, air pollution, safety, social equity, economy, and public health). Our review shows that first-order impacts on road capacity, fuel efficiency, emissions, and accidents risk are expected to be beneficial. The magnitude of these benefits will likely increase with the level of automation and cooperation and with the penetration rate of these systems. The synergistic effects between vehicle automation, sharing, and electrification can multiply these benefits. However, studies confirm that automated vehicles can induce additional travel demand because of more and longer vehicle trips. Potential land use changes have not been included in these estimations about excessive travel demand. Other third-order benefits on safety, economy, public health and social equity still remain unclear. Therefore, the balance between the short-term benefits and long-term impacts of vehicle automation remains an open question.

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Section: Literature Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Policy and society related implications of automated driving: A review of literature and directions for future research

Milakis

Arem

Wee

2017

Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems

714

383

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…However, our literature search revealed that very few real life/on-road tests have been carried out with automated vehicles. One study addressed the issue of enabling a comfortable highly automated driving style by collecting driving data from participants manually driving in different road environments (Bellem et al 2016). Another study investigated driver engagement in secondary task (Naujoks et al 2016) and a third one investigated the learning process, as well as the development of trust, acceptance and the mental model for interacting with adaptive cruise control (Beggiato, et al 2015).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Driving with and without automation on the motorway – an observational study

Várhelyi

Kaufmann

Johnsson

et al. 2020

Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems

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User-related assessment of a level 3 automated driving system, providing functions such as lane-and distance-keeping, stop & go driving, lane change and overtaking, was carried out on a motorway in Germany with the aim to assess user-related issues of automated driving, i.e., behavior when driving with automation on motorways, user experiences, reactions and acceptance. Twenty-one persons drove twice along the test route once with the system switched off and once with the system active. Driving data were logged and driving behavior was observed by two observers in the car and the drivers answered questionnaires. The results revealed that the drivers used the system as it was intended to be used and that the system affected driving positively in several ways, resulting in better speed adaptation, less speed variation, better distance keeping, better lane choice, better indicator usage and fewer dangerous lane changes. No differences with regard to subjective workload were shown. The system was perceived as being both useful and satisfactory. However, it was found that the system did not react to other drivers' intention to make a lane change, especially in situations where they were attempting to merge onto the motorway. Further development is needed to improve the system's ability to recognize other vehicles' intention to enter the vehicle's own lane. Also, the phenomenon of the driver "feeling guilty" because of the system's reckless behavior by not allowing other drivers to merge onto the motorway or hindering other cars behind due to lengthy overtaking should be investigated further.

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“…However, there has been comparatively little research on the influence of longitudinal vehicle to vehicle distances of highly automated vehicles on the subjective experience of drivers, with a small number of studies pointing to the importance of time headway adjustments in highly automated driving (Bellem, Schönenberg, Krems, & Schrauf, 2016;De Waard, Van der Hulst, Hoedemaeker, & Brookhuis, 1999). Since drivers will not be able to regulate their following distance in highly automated driving as freely as in self-driving, it is important to understand how time headway distances need to be adjusted for highly automated driving, without drivers feeling uncomfortable.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

How speed and visibility influence preferred headway distances in highly automated driving

Siebert

Wallis

2019

Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviou

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While the introduction of highly automated vehicles promises lower accident numbers, a main requirement for wide use of these vehicles will be the acceptance by drivers. In this study a crucial variable for the acceptance of highly automated vehicles, the vehicle to vehicle distance expressed in time headway, was researched in a driving simulator. Research has shown that time headway distances, perceived as comfortable in self-driving and assisted driving with adaptive cruise control, remain constant over a range of different speeds. This study aims to test these findings for highly automated driving. Since time headway is perceived visually, the driving situation was varied to investigate the influence of visibility on the subjective comfort of the driver in a highly automated driving situation. In a withinsubject design, drivers followed a passenger car in clear weather conditions, the same passenger car in fog which occluded parts of the traffic environment, as well as a truck that occluded the lane ahead, also in clear weather condition. Subjective comfort of drivers in each condition was rated with a haptic rating lever. Results suggest that comfortable time headway following distances in highly automated driving are not constant over different speeds, but that these distances decrease with increasing speed. Reduced visibility generally led to a shift in comfortable following distances towards larger headways. These results have implications for the introduction of highly automated vehicles and their time headway adjustments, which will need to be adaptive to speed and visibility in the road environment.

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Objective metrics of comfort: Developing a driving style for highly automated vehicles

Cited by 146 publications

References 16 publications

Policy and society related implications of automated driving: A review of literature and directions for future research

Policy and society related implications of automated driving: A review of literature and directions for future research

Driving with and without automation on the motorway – an observational study

How speed and visibility influence preferred headway distances in highly automated driving

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