Nutritional Status and Cardiovascular Health in Female Adolescent Elite-Level Artistic Gymnasts and Swimmers: A Cross-Sectional Study of 31 Athletes

Abstract

Objective. Nutritional status is important for health and competitive achievement. This area remains understudied among elite-level female athletes and is appropriate for research. We examined nutritional status and cardiovascular health markers of two groups of female athletes of the same age and competition period, involved in weight-bearing and a non-weight-bearing sport: gymnasts (n = 17) and swimmers (n = 14); mean age 17.4 and 16.6 years. Methods. Body composition and dietary intake were assessed by bioelectrical impedance and Food Frequency Questionnaire. The concentrations of serum micronutrients (B12, 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25 (OH) D), calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and iron), blood lipids, and blood pressure (BP) were measured. Setting and Participants. A cross-sectional study of 31 athletes from Slovenia. Results. Gymnasts had higher body mass index (21.5 vs. 20.1 kg/m2, p = 0.043 ) and lower fat free mass (42.4 vs. 46.6 kg, p = 0.024 ) than swimmers and comparable body fat percentage (22.5 vs. 22.8%). Both groups had low intake of carbohydrates, fibre, polyunsaturated fats, protein (only gymnasts), and micronutrients (11/13 micronutrients gymnasts and 4/13 swimmers) and high intake of free sugars and saturated fats. Both groups also had significantly lower-than-recommended serum levels of 25 (OH) D. All cardiovascular risk factors were within recommended ranges. Gymnasts had higher LDL cholesterol (2.7 vs. 2.2 mmol/L, p < 0.011 ), and swimmers had higher systolic BP (126 vs. 107 mmHg, p < 0.001 ). Conclusions. Dietary intake especially in gymnasts was suboptimal, which may reflect in anthropometric and cardiovascular marker differences between gymnasts and swimmers.

Level of Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet and Weight Status among Adolescent Female Gymnasts: A Cross-Sectional Study

“…This result should be interpreted very carefully, as it may lead to the conclusion that better adherence to MD is linked to greater risk of being underweight, which is a serious concern for the sport of gymnastics. In our study, the mean BMI of the athletes was greater than the BMIs that were observed in other studies of adolescent gymnasts [ 29 , 53 , 64 , 76 , 77 , 78 ] and the percentage of underweight athletes was relatively small; this may affect the results of the analysis. Nevertheless, we believe that the association between MD adherence and BMI in non-normoweight athletes should be further examined in future studies.…”

Epidemiology of Injuries in National Collegiate Athletic Association Women's Gymnastics: 2014–2015 Through 2018–2019

“…26 Furthermore, unique characteristics such as the aesthetic nature of the sport and the high prevalence of early sport specialization may also affect athlete health and wellness with regards to nutrition and metabolic health. [27][28][29] Sports medicine staff working with women's gymnastics athletes may consider these factors as well as the competitive structure of youth gymnastics in contextualizing the individual needs of athletes competing in this sport. The NCAA ISP does not capture information on nutritional compromises, and future researchers may also consider this area as an avenue for further examination in this population.…”

Nutritional, Cardiovascular Health and Lifestyle Status of ‘Health Conscious’ Adult Vegans and Non-Vegans from Slovenia: A Cross-Sectional Self-Reported Survey

“…The daily dietary intake was calculated by summing the nutrient content of each food item. The FFQ has been tested and validated for assessing food consumption with 7-day estimated diet records [ 38 ] and had previously been used in Slovenia in two female populations of athletes [ 40 ].…”