Nutrient Use and Management Practices on United States Golf Courses

Abstract

Nutrient use on United States golf courses increases management costs and has the potential to influence ecosystems. Therefore, it is critical to assess nutrient use and management practices to develop and teach best management practices. The objectives of this survey were to measure nutrient use and management practices on United States golf courses in 2021, and to determine if changes occurred since 2006. A survey was developed and distributed via e-mail to 14,033 United States golf facilities, with 1444 responding. From 2006 to 2021, the total projected nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P2O5), and soluble potash (K2O) applied declined by 41%, 59%, and 54%, to 54,376, 13,761, and 41,386 tons, respectively. These reductions were attributed to course closures, reduced fertilized acres, reduced application rates, and nutrient use restrictions. The percentage of facilities that did not apply P2O5 increased to 21%, which is likely a result of P2O5 application restrictions. Soil testing was associated with greater application rates of N, P2O5, and K2O. Returning clippings, using precision fertilizer applications, reducing turfgrass acreage, and considering N release from soil organic matter were associated with reduced application rates of P2O5. Golf course superintendents have contributed to nationwide reductions in N, P2O5, and K2O, as evidenced by the reduction in fertilized acres and the reduction in nutrient use rates from 2006 to 2021.

Turfgrass Use on US Golf Courses

“…We postulate three primarily explanations for the reduction of winter overseeding. First, winter overseeding is resource intensive, especially with water and nutrients (Shaddox et al 2022(Shaddox et al , 2023b. Reductions in winter-overseeded area may be attributed to resource conservation practices, especially in the Southwest region where water supply constraints are prevalent (Shaddox et al 2022).…”

Land-use and Energy Practices on US Golf Courses

“…In some locations, such as California, regulations have been implemented since 2005 that prohibit engine exhaust and evaporative emissions from small offroad engines, which includes some turfgrass maintenance equipment (California Senate 2021). Such regulations have been identified as potential sources of behavioral change on golf facilities (Shaddox et al 2023). The survey instrument was not designed to determine the cause of behavioral changes.…”