Novel Data Analyses Address the African Enigma and Controversies Surrounding the Roles of <i>Helicobacter pylori</i> in Peptic Ulcers <strong> </strong>

Abstract

Currently, peptic ulcers are widely considered an infectious disease caused by Helicobacter pylori due to 3 supporting evidences, and this etiology may explain 3 other observations. However, it cannot withstand the challenges of all the 15 major characteristics and the other 75 observations/phenomena of peptic ulcers. To address these challenges, a recently published Complex Causal Relationship with its accompanying methodologies was applied to analyze the existing data. Peptic ulcers are identified as a psychosomatic disease triggered by psychological stress, where Helicobacter pylori plays a secondary role in the late phase of ulceration. This new etiology addresses all the characteristics, observations/phenomena, controversies, and mysteries of peptic ulcers in a series of 6 articles. This sixth article focuses on the controversies associated with Helicobacter pylori. In-depth analyses find that all the 3 supporting evidences are illusions, and all the 3 explainable observations are misinterpreted, indicating that none of the 15 characteristics and 81 observations/phenomena of peptic ulcers can be elucidated by the etiology based on Helicobacter pylori. Moreover, the definitions of &amp;lsquo;etiological factor&amp;rsquo;, controversies on H. pylori, epidemiological studies, characteristics of the disease, and historical observations suggest &amp;lsquo;peptic ulcers are an infectious disease caused by Helicobacter pylori&amp;rsquo; is an illusion and thus, the African enigma, a mystery derived from the illusion, does not exist. Similar illusions widely exist in medical research, resulting in direct interference with the true understanding of diseases. A full understanding of the pathogenesis of peptic ulcers highlights the guiding role of philosophy in life science and medical research.

Novel Data Analyses Explain the Seasonal Variation of Peptic Ulcers

“…This new etiology explained all 15 characteristics and 81 observations/phenomena of peptic ulcers in a series of 6 articles, including all 36 observations associated with H. pylori [50][51][52][53][54]. All the controversies and mysteries associated with peptic ulcers, including the birth-cohort phenomenon [52] and the African enigma [53], were also resolved. This article is the fifth one of the series, focusing on the 73rd observation, the seasonal variation of peptic ulcers.…”

“…However, Theory of H. pylori cannot elucidate the majority of the 15 characteristics and 81 observations/phenomena of peptic ulcers [34], including the birth-cohort phenomenon and seasonal variation. In contrast, Theory of Nodes, where peptic ulcers are not an infectious disease caused by H. pylori but a psychosomatic disease triggered by psychological stress, elucidated all 15 characteristics and 81 observations/phenomena of peptic ulcers [50][51][52][53][54]. The tremendous contrast further suggests that H. pylori infection is not the cause of peptic ulcers.…”

“…In Theory of Nodes, the data analyses are characterized by the repeated applications of a new methodological concept, Superposition Mechanism. As a result, both the birth-cohort phenomenon and season variation of peptic ulcers, as well as all the clinical, epidemiological, and laboratory observations of peptic ulcers [50][51][52][53][54], were elucidated. Unfortunately, due to a reductionist approach, which attempts to explain an entire system in terms of its parts [86,87], the concept of the 'Superposition Mechanism' has never come into being in modern medicine.…”

“…Psychosomatic Theory and Stress Theory were integrated into a new etiological theory, Theory of Nodes, in which peptic ulcers are a psychosomatic disease triggered by psychological stress [50], whereas H. pylori infection is not a cause of peptic ulcers but plays a secondary role in only the late phase of ulcerations [51]. This new etiology explained all 15 characteristics and 81 observations/phenomena of peptic ulcers in a series of 6 articles, including all 36 observations associated with H. pylori [50][51][52][53][54]. All the controversies and mysteries associated with peptic ulcers, including the birth-cohort phenomenon [52] and the African enigma [53], were also resolved.…”

Novel Data Analyses Explain the Birth-Cohort Phenomenon of Peptic Ulcers

“…Despite 13 etiological theories being proposed in history [7], the birth-cohort phenomenon of peptic ulcers has remained an unresolved mystery for 60 years. The application of the CCR with its accompanying methodology proposed in 2012 birthed Theory of Nodes [40][41][42], which addressed all the controversies and mysteries of peptic ulcers in a series of 6 articles, including the birth-cohort phenomenon in this fourth article [40][41][42]68,69]. Theory of Nodes attributes its success to a definite etiology of peptic ulcers, as well as an innovative methodological concept, Superposition Mechanism.…”