Note on terminology

Taming systemic corruption: The American experience and its implications for contemporary debates

“…While progressives advanced many arguments to justify the creation of independent regulatory boards, in many states these boards were a conscious and explicit response to the perceived corrupt influence that powerful industries exercised over politicians and political parties. 151 As one historian summed up the view of many Progressive Era reformers, "Regulation by commissions seemed to be an effective way to halt corruption by transferring the responsibility for business-government relations from party bosses and legislators to impartial experts." 152 As was true in the 1870s, when it came to corruption of legislatures, railroad companies were viewed as among the worst culprits, especially in southern and western states; 153 between 1905 and 1907, fifteen states established new railroad commissions, and other states strengthened their existing commissions.…”

Complate journal

“…This is a tremendous task, as torture has been employed for decades both as a prosecutorial tool and for motivations of social control. 141 Nonetheless, if Mexico wishes to comply with its own legal mandates and ensure the consolidation of its fledgling judicial system, this will be a crucial step toward institutional legitimacy.…”

“…140 McCrudden, supra note 1, at 522. case, the Court considered that the criminalization of acts of sodomy in Northern Ireland was not "necessary in a democratic society", partly because the majority of European countries have decided to decriminalize sodomy. 141 Through the conventionality control doctrine, the IACHR aims for the countries under its jurisdiction to create a common understanding of the American Convention of Human Rights. Furthermore, several authors have referred to an emerging "Ius Constitutionale Commune in Latin America".…”

Contracts, Causation, and Clarity

“…" 192 In fact, it has been argued that "the standard of 'certainty' was developed, and has been used, chiefly as a convenient means of keeping within the bounds of reasonable expectation the risk which litigation imposes upon commercial enterprise." 193 One commentator has suggested that the reasonably-certain requirement could be used to preclude a recovery when the injured party was in a better position to avoid the loss. 194 The same commentator has argued that the reasonably-certain requirement, if it imposes a strict standard on recovery, operates as a penalty default rule, designed to provide the injured party with an incentive to disclose the likely amount of loss from breach during contract negotiations and to encourage the use of liquidated-damages provisions.…”